Biochemical membrane lipidomics during Drosophila development

Co-option of Membrane Wounding Enables Virus Penetration into Cells

During cell entry, non-enveloped viruses undergo partial uncoating to expose membrane lytic proteins for gaining access to the cytoplasm. We report that adenovirus uses membrane piercing to induce and hijack cellular wound removal processes that facilitate further membrane disruption and infection. Incoming adenovirus stimulates calcium influx and lysosomal exocytosis, a membrane repair mechanism resulting in release of acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) and degradation of sphingomyelin to ceramide lipids in the plasma membrane. Lysosomal exocytosis is triggered by small plasma membrane lesions induced by the viral membrane lytic protein-VI, which is exposed upon mechanical cues from virus receptors, followed by virus endocytosis into leaky endosomes. Chemical inhibition or RNA interference of ASMase slows virus endocytosis, inhibits virus escape to the cytosol, and reduces infection. Ceramide enhances binding of protein-VI to lipid membranes and protein-VI-induced membrane rupture. Thus, adenovirus uses a positive feedback loop between virus uncoating and lipid signaling for efficient membrane penetration.

Novel advances in shotgun lipidomics for biology and medicine

The field of lipidomics, as coined in 2003, has made profound advances and been rapidly expanded. The mass spectrometry-based strategies of this analytical methodology-oriented research discipline for lipid analysis are largely fallen into three categories: direct infusion-based shotgun lipidomics, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based platforms, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry-based approaches (particularly in imagining lipid distribution in tissues or cells). This review focuses on shotgun lipidomics. After briefly introducing its fundamentals, the major materials of this article cover its recent advances. These include the novel methods of lipid extraction, novel shotgun lipidomics strategies for identification and quantification of previously hardly accessible lipid classes and molecular species including isomers, and novel tools for processing and interpretation of lipidomics data. Representative applications of advanced shotgun lipidomics for biological and biomedical research are also presented in this review. We believe that with these novel advances in shotgun lipidomics, this approach for lipid analysis should become more comprehensive and high throughput, thereby greatly accelerating the lipidomics field to substantiate the aberrant lipid metabolism, signaling, trafficking, and homeostasis under pathological conditions and their underpinning biochemical mechanisms.

Current approaches to studying membrane organization

The local structure and composition of the outer membrane of an animal cell are important factors in the control of many membrane processes and mechanisms. These include signaling, sorting, and exo- and endocytic processes that are occurring all the time in a living cell. Paradoxically, not only are the local structure and composition of the membrane matters of much debate and discussion, the mechanisms that govern its genesis remain highly controversial. Here, we discuss a swathe of new technological advances that may be applied to understand the local structure and composition of the membrane of a living cell from the molecular scale to the scale of the whole membrane.

The LUX Score: A Metric for Lipidome Homology

A lipidome is the set of lipids in a given organism, cell or cell compartment and this set reflects the organism’s synthetic pathways and interactions with its environment. Recently, lipidomes of biological model organisms and cell lines were published and the number of functional studies of lipids is increasing. In this study we propose a homology metric that can quantify systematic differences in the composition of a lipidome. Algorithms were developed to 1. consistently convert lipids structure into SMILES, 2. determine structural similarity between molecular species and 3. describe a lipidome in a chemical space model. We tested lipid structure conversion and structure similarity metrics, in detail, using sets of isomeric ceramide molecules and chemically related phosphatidylinositols. Template-based SMILES showed the best properties for representing lipid-specific structural diversity. We also show that sequence analysis algorithms are best suited to calculate distances between such template-based SMILES and we adjudged the Levenshtein distance as best choice for quantifying structural changes. When all lipid molecules of the LIPIDMAPS structure database were mapped in chemical space, they automatically formed clusters corresponding to conventional chemical families. Accordingly, we mapped a pair of lipidomes into the same chemical space and determined the degree of overlap by calculating the Hausdorff distance. We named this metric the ‘Lipidome jUXtaposition (LUX) score’. First, we tested this approach for estimating the lipidome similarity on four yeast strains with known genetic alteration in fatty acid synthesis. We show that the LUX score reflects the genetic relationship and growth temperature better than conventional methods although the score is based solely on lipid structures. Next, we applied this metric to high-throughput data of larval tissue lipidomes of Drosophila. This showed that the LUX score is sufficient to cluster tissues and determine the impact of nutritional changes in an unbiased manner, despite the limited information on the underlying structural diversity of each lipidome. This study is the first effort to define a lipidome homology metric based on structures that will enrich functional association of lipids in a similar manner to measures used in genetics. Finally, we discuss the significance of the LUX score to perform comparative lipidome studies across species borders.

Because of their role in health and disease, lipids are often the focus of biochemical studies. Advances in analytical biochemistry have made it possible to detect all the lipids from a cell, tissue or organism (termed lipidome). Much of this research is based on model organisms, but it is difficult to transfer results from a fruit fly or yeast to human biochemistry. A central problem is that there is no agreed-upon method for comparing lipidomes. We have developed the LUX score, which enables us to determine the homology between lipidomes. All constituent lipids are first embedded in a chemical space according to their similarity to each other. When we treat all lipids as points in such a space, one can overlay different lipidomes and estimate their differences. We expect that this kind of metric will be useful for translating findings from model organisms to human diseases and in understanding fundamental biological processes.

As the fat flies: The dynamic lipid droplets of Drosophila embryos

Research into lipid droplets is rapidly expanding, and new cellular and organismal roles for these lipid-storage organelles are continually being discovered. The early Drosophila embryo is particularly well suited for addressing certain questions in lipid-droplet biology and combines technical advantages with unique biological phenomena. This review summarizes key features of this experimental system and the techniques available to study it, in order to make it accessible to researchers outside this field. It then describes the two topics most heavily studied in this system, lipid-droplet motility and protein sequestration on droplets, discusses what is known about the molecular players involved, points to open questions, and compares the results from Drosophila embryo studies to what it is known about lipid droplets in other systems.

Modeling metabolic homeostasis and nutrient sensing in Drosophila: implications for aging and metabolic diseases

Over the past decade, numerous reports have underscored the similarities between the metabolism of Drosophila and vertebrates, with the identification of evolutionarily conserved enzymes and analogous organs that regulate carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is now well established that the major metabolic, energy-sensing and endocrine signaling networks of vertebrate systems are also conserved in flies. Accordingly, studies in Drosophila are beginning to unravel how perturbed energy balance impinges on lifespan and on the ensuing diseases when energy homeostasis goes awry. Here, we highlight several emerging concepts that are at the nexus between obesity, nutrient sensing, metabolic homeostasis and aging. Specifically, we summarize the endocrine mechanisms that regulate carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and provide an overview of the neuropeptides that regulate feeding behavior. We further describe the various efforts at modeling the effects of high-fat or -sugar diets in Drosophila and the signaling mechanisms involved in integrating organ function. Finally, we draw attention to some of the cardinal discoveries made with these disease models and how these could spur new research questions in vertebrate systems.

Phosphoinositide signalling in Drosophila

Phosphoinositides (PtdInsPs) are lipids that mediate a range of conserved cellular processes in eukaryotes. These include the transduction of ligand binding to cell surface receptors, vesicular transport and cytoskeletal function. The nature and functions of PtdInsPs were initially elucidated through biochemical experiments in mammalian cells. However, over the years, genetic and cell biological analysis in a range of model organisms including S. cerevisiae, D. melanogaster and C. elegans have contributed to an understanding of the involvement of PtdInsPs in these cellular events. The fruit fly Drosophila is an excellent genetic model for the analysis of cell and developmental biology as well as physiological processes, particularly analysis of the complex relationship between the cell types of a metazoan in mediating animal physiology. PtdInsP signalling pathways are underpinned by enzymes that synthesise and degrade these molecules and also by proteins that bind to these lipids in cells. In this review we provide an overview of the current understanding of PtdInsP signalling in Drosophila. We provide a comparative genomic analysis of the PtdInsP signalling toolkit between Drosophila and mammalian systems. We also review some areas of cell and developmental biology where analysis in Drosophila might provide insights into the role of this lipid-signalling pathway in metazoan biology. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Exploring developmental and physiological functions of fatty acid and lipid variants through worm and fly genetics

Lipids are more than biomolecules for energy storage and membrane structure. With ample structural variation, lipids critically participate in nearly all aspects of cellular function. Lipid homeostasis and metabolism are closely related to major human diseases and health problems. However, lipid functional studies have been significantly underdeveloped, partly because of the difficulty in applying genetics and common molecular approaches to tackle the complexity associated with lipid biosynthesis, metabolism, and function. In the past decade, a number of laboratories began to analyze the roles of lipid metabolism in development and other physiological functions using animal models and combining genetics, genomics, and biochemical approaches. These pioneering efforts have not only provided valuable insights regarding lipid functions in vivo but have also established feasible methodology for future studies. Here, we review a subset of these studies using Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster.

Laser capture microdissection coupled with on-column extraction LC-MS(n) enables lipidomics of fluorescently labeled Drosophila neurons

We have used laser capture microdissection (LCM) and fluorescence microscopy to isolate genetically labeled neurons from the Drosophila melanogaster brain. From native thin sections, regions of interest could be analyzed with a spatial resolution better than 50 μm. To exploit the specificity of LCM for lipidomics, catapulted tissue patches were directly collected on a reversed phase column and analyzed using an on-column extraction (OCE) that was directly coupled with liquid chromatography-multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MS(n)). With this approach, more than 50 membrane lipids belonging to 9 classes were quantified in tissue regions equivalent to a sample amount of 50 cells. Using this method, the limit of quantitation and the extraction efficiency could be estimated enabling a reliable evaluation of acquired lipid profiles. The lipid profiles of cell body- and synapse-enriched regions of the Drosophila brain were determined and found to be distinct. We argue that this workflow represents a tremendous improvement for tissue lipidomics by integrating genetics, fluorescence microscopy, LCM and LC-MS(n).

Large-scale imaginal disc sorting: A protocol for "omics"-approaches

Imaginal discs, especially the wing imaginal disc, are powerful model systems to study organ development. The traditional methods to analyze wing imaginal discs depend on the laborious and time-consuming dissection of larvae. "Omics"-based approaches, such as RNA-seq, ChIP-seq, proteomics and lipidomics, offer new opportunities for the systems-level investigation of organ development. However, it is impractical to manually isolate the required starting material. This is even more problematic when experiments strive for enhanced temporal and spatial resolution. The mass isolation workflow discussed in this review, solves this problem. The semi-automated sorting of 1000 wing imaginal discs in less than 3h forms the basis of a workflow that can be connected to biochemical analyses of organ patterning and growth. In addition to the mass isolation workflow we briefly describe key "omics" technologies and their applications. The combination of mass isolation and "omics"-approaches ensures that the wing imaginal disc will continue to be a key model organ for studying developmental processes, both on the genetic, but increasingly also on the biochemical level.

Sex-specific triacylglycerides are widely conserved in Drosophila and mediate mating behavior

Pheromones play an important role in the behavior, ecology, and evolution of many organisms. The structure of many insect pheromones typically consists of a hydrocarbon backbone, occasionally modified with various functional oxygen groups. Here we show that sex-specific triacylclyerides (TAGs) are broadly conserved across the subgenus Drosophila in 11 species and represent a novel class of pheromones that has been largely overlooked. In desert-adapted drosophilids, 13 different TAGs are secreted exclusively by males from the ejaculatory bulb, transferred to females during mating, and function synergistically to inhibit courtship from other males. Sex-specific TAGs are comprised of at least one short branched tiglic acid and a long linear fatty acyl component, an unusual structural motif that has not been reported before in other natural products. The diversification of chemical cues used by desert-adapted Drosophila as pheromones may be related to their specialized diet of fermenting cacti.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01751.001

For animals, the ultimate purpose of life is to have sex, as nothing is more important than passing down your genes to future generations. A wide range of strategies are therefore employed throughout nature to maximize the chances of sexual success, from ostentatious courtship rituals to the subtle subliminal signals sent out using chemicals called pheromones. Plants and animals release pheromones to influence the behavior of other plants and animals, often without the recipient being aware of it.

Hundreds of different insect pheromones have been discovered. Fruit flies release a number of different pheromones, all with similar chemical structures. Now, Chin et al. have discovered that male flies belonging to several species of fruit fly that live in the desert release chemicals called triacylglycerides (TAGs), which are commonly used for energy storage by many organisms as pheromones. During sex, the male fly rubs the TAGs onto the body of the female, which makes her less attractive to other male flies for several hours, thus increasing his chances of parenthood and passing his genes to future generations.

TAGs are also found in other insect species, but have been largely overlooked as pheromones. Moreover, the TAGs discovered by Chin et al. have an unusual structure, not previously seen in nature, which may result from the diet of fermenting cacti the desert-dwelling fruit flies enjoy.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01751.002

Lipidomics: analysis of the lipid composition of cells and subcellular organelles by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

Lipidomics aims to quantitatively define lipid classes, including their molecular species, in biological systems. Lipidomics has experienced rapid progress, mainly because of continuous technical advances in instrumentation that are now enabling quantitative lipid analyses with an unprecedented level of sensitivity and precision. The still-growing category of lipids includes a broad diversity of chemical structures with a wide range of physicochemical properties. Reflecting this diversity, different methods and strategies are being applied to the quantification of lipids. Here, I review state-of-the-art electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometric approaches and direct infusion to quantitatively assess lipid compositions of cells and subcellular fractions. Finally, I discuss a few examples of the power of mass spectrometry-based lipidomics in addressing cell biological questions.

A global in vivo Drosophila RNAi screen identifies a key role of ceramide phosphoethanolamine for glial ensheathment of axons

Glia are of vital importance for all complex nervous system. One of the many functions of glia is to insulate and provide trophic and metabolic support to axons. Here, using glial-specific RNAi knockdown in Drosophila, we silenced 6930 conserved genes in adult flies to identify essential genes and pathways. Among our screening hits, metabolic processes were highly represented, and genes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolic pathways appeared to be essential in glia. One critical pathway identified was de novo ceramide synthesis. Glial knockdown of lace, a subunit of the serine palmitoyltransferase associated with hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies in humans, resulted in ensheathment defects of peripheral nerves in Drosophila. A genetic dissection study combined with shotgun high-resolution mass spectrometry of lipids showed that levels of ceramide phosphoethanolamine are crucial for axonal ensheathment by glia. A detailed morphological and functional analysis demonstrated that the depletion of ceramide phosphoethanolamine resulted in axonal defasciculation, slowed spike propagation, and failure of wrapping glia to enwrap peripheral axons. Supplementing sphingosine into the diet rescued the neuropathy in flies. Thus, our RNAi study in Drosophila identifies a key role of ceramide phosphoethanolamine in wrapping of axons by glia.

Heritability and inter-population differences in lipid profiles of Drosophila melanogaster

Characterizing and understanding the complex spectrum of lipids in higher organisms lags far behind our analysis of genome and transcriptome sequences. Here we generate and evaluate comprehensive lipid profiles (>200 lipids) of 92 inbred lines from five different Drosophila melanogaster populations. We find that the majority of lipid species are highly heritable, and even lipids with odd-chain fatty acids, which cannot be generated by the fly itself, also have high heritabilities. Abundance of the endosymbiont Wolbachia, a potential provider of odd-chained lipids, was positively correlated with this group of lipids. Additionally, we show that despite years of laboratory rearing on the same medium, the lipid profiles of the five geographic populations are sufficiently distinct for population discrimination. Our data predicts a strikingly different membrane fluidity for flies from the Netherlands, which is supported by their increased ethanol tolerance. We find that 18% of lipids show strong concentration differences between males and females. Through an analysis of the correlation structure of the lipid classes, we find modules of co-regulated lipids and begin to associate these with metabolic constraints. Our data provide a foundation for developing associations between variation in lipid composition with variation in other metabolic attributes, with genome-wide variation, and with metrics of health and overall reproductive fitness.

Ceramide phosphoethanolamine biosynthesis in Drosophila is mediated by a unique ethanolamine phosphotransferase in the Golgi lumen

Sphingomyelin (SM) is a vital component of mammalian membranes, providing mechanical stability and a structural framework for plasma membrane organization. Its production involves the transfer of phosphocholine from phosphatidylcholine onto ceramide, a reaction catalyzed by SM synthase in the Golgi lumen. Drosophila lacks SM and instead synthesizes the SM analogue ceramide phosphoethanolamine (CPE) as the principal membrane sphingolipid. The corresponding CPE synthase shares mechanistic features with enzymes mediating phospholipid biosynthesis via the Kennedy pathway. Using a functional cloning strategy, we here identified a CDP-ethanolamine:ceramide ethanolamine phosphotransferase as the enzyme responsible for CPE production in Drosophila. CPE synthase constitutes a new branch within the CDP-alcohol phosphotransferase superfamily with homologues in Arthropoda (insects, spiders, mites, scorpions), Cnidaria (Hydra, sea anemones), and Mollusca (oysters) but not in most other animal phyla. The enzyme resides in the Golgi complex with its active site facing the lumen, contrary to the membrane topology of other CDP-alcohol phosphotransferases. Our findings open up an important new avenue to address the biological role of CPE, an enigmatic membrane constituent of a wide variety of invertebrate and marine organisms.