16-membered macrolide antibiotics: a review

From Oxiranes to Oligomers: Architectures of U.S. FDA Approved Pharmaceuticals Containing Oxygen Heterocycles

Oxygen heterocycles are the second most common type of heterocycles that appear as structural components of U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved pharmaceuticals. Analysis of our database of drugs approved through 2017 reveals 311 distinct pharmaceuticals containing at least one oxygen heterocycle. Most prevalent among these are pyranoses, with furanoses, macrolactones, morpholines, and dioxolanes rounding off the top five. The main body of this Perspective is organized according to ring size, commencing with three- and four-membered rings and ending with macrocycles, polymers, and unusual oxygen-containing heterocycles. For each section, all oxygen heterocycle-containing drugs are presented along with a brief discussion about structural and drug application patterns.

Comparison of Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance: Learning from Various Kingdoms

Drug resistance, especially antibiotic resistance, is a growing threat to human health. To overcome this problem, it is significant to know precisely the mechanisms of drug resistance and/or self-resistance in various kingdoms, from bacteria through plants to animals, once more. This review compares the molecular mechanisms of the resistance against phycotoxins, toxins from marine and terrestrial animals, plants and fungi, and antibiotics. The results reveal that each kingdom possesses the characteristic features. The main mechanisms in each kingdom are transporters/efflux pumps in phycotoxins, mutation and modification of targets and sequestration in marine and terrestrial animal toxins, ABC transporters and sequestration in plant toxins, transporters in fungal toxins, and various or mixed mechanisms in antibiotics. Antibiotic producers in particular make tremendous efforts for avoiding suicide, and are more flexible and adaptable to the changes of environments. With these features in mind, potential alternative strategies to overcome these resistance problems are discussed. This paper will provide clues for solving the issues of drug resistance.