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Bernardoni JL, Sousa LF, Wermelinger LS, Lopes AS, Prezoto BC, Serrano SMT, Zingali RB, Moura-da-Silva AM. Functional variability of snake venom metalloproteinases: adaptive advantages in targeting different prey and implications for human envenomation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109651. [PMID: 25313513 PMCID: PMC4196926 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) are major components in most viperid venoms that induce disturbances in the hemostatic system and tissues of animals envenomated by snakes. These disturbances are involved in human pathology of snake bites and appear to be essential for the capture and digestion of snake's prey and avoidance of predators. SVMPs are a versatile family of venom toxins acting on different hemostatic targets which are present in venoms in distinct structural forms. However, the reason why a large number of different SVMPs are expressed in some venoms is still unclear. In this study, we evaluated the interference of five isolated SVMPs in blood coagulation of humans, birds and small rodents. P-III class SVMPs (fractions Ic, IIb and IIc) possess gelatinolytic and hemorrhagic activities, and, of these, two also show fibrinolytic activity. P-I class SVMPs (fractions IVa and IVb) are only fibrinolytic. P-III class SVMPs reduced clotting time of human plasma. Fraction IIc was characterized as prothrombin activator and fraction Ic as factor X activator. In the absence of Ca2+, a firm clot was observed in chicken blood samples with fractions Ic, IIb and partially with fraction IIc. In contrast, without Ca2+, only fraction IIc was able to induce a firm clot in rat blood. In conclusion, functionally distinct forms of SVMPs were found in B. neuwiedi venom that affect distinct mechanisms in the coagulation system of humans, birds and small rodents. Distinct SVMPs appear to be more specialized to rat or chicken blood, strengthening the current hypothesis that toxin diversity enhances the possibilities of the snakes for hunting different prey or evading different predators. This functional diversity also impacts the complexity of human envenoming since different hemostatic mechanisms will be targeted by SVMPs accounting for the complexity of the response of humans to venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leijiane F. Sousa
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciana S. Wermelinger
- Laboratório de Hemostasia e Venenos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio do Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Laboratório de Fisiopatologia da Trombose, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio do Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Aline S. Lopes
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), FAPESP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Solange M. T. Serrano
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), FAPESP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Russolina B. Zingali
- Laboratório de Hemostasia e Venenos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio do Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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102
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Ali SA, Jackson TNW, Casewell NR, Low DHW, Rossi S, Baumann K, Fathinia B, Visser J, Nouwens A, Hendrikx I, Jones A, Undheim E, Fry BG. Extreme venom variation in Middle Eastern vipers: a proteomics comparison of Eristicophis macmahonii, Pseudocerastes fieldi and Pseudocerastes persicus. J Proteomics 2014; 116:106-13. [PMID: 25241240 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Venoms of the viperid sister genera Eristicophis and Pseudocerastes are poorly studied despite their anecdotal reputation for producing severe or even lethal envenomations. This is due in part to the remote and politically unstable regions that they occupy. All species contained are sit and wait ambush feeders. Thus, this study examined their venoms through proteomics techniques in order to establish if this feeding ecology, and putatively low levels of gene flow, have resulted in significant variations in venom profile. The techniques indeed revealed extreme venom variation. This has immediate implications as only one antivenom is made (using the venom of Pseudocerastes persicus) yet the proteomic variation suggests that it would be of only limited use for the other species, even the sister species Pseudocerastes fieldi. The high degree of variation however also points toward these species being rich resources for novel compounds which may have use as lead molecules in drug design and development. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results show extreme venom variation between these closely related snakes. These results have direct implications for the treatment of the envenomed patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed A Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Dolyce H W Low
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Sarah Rossi
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Behzad Fathinia
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Yasouj University, 75914 Yasouj, Iran
| | - Jeroen Visser
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Life Sciences, Hogeschool Inholland Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Iwan Hendrikx
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Alun Jones
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Eba Undheim
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia.
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103
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Pucca MB, Amorim FG, Cerni FA, Bordon KDCF, Cardoso IA, Anjolette FAP, Arantes EC. Influence of post-starvation extraction time and prey-specific diet in Tityus serrulatus scorpion venom composition and hyaluronidase activity. Toxicon 2014; 90:326-36. [PMID: 25199494 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.08.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 08/17/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The role of diet in venom composition has been a topic of intense research interest. This work presents evidence that the variation in the venom composition from the scorpion Tityus serrulatus (Ts) is closely associated with post-starvation extraction time and prey-specific diet. The scorpions were fed with cockroach, cricket, peanut beetle or giant Tenebrio. The venoms demonstrated a pronounced difference in the total protein and toxins composition, which was evaluated by electrophoresis, reversed-phase chromatography, densitometry, hyaluronidase activity and N-terminal sequencing. Indeed, many toxins and peptides, such as Ts1, Ts2, Ts4, Ts5, Ts6, Ts15, Ts19 frag. II, hypotensins 1 and 3, PAPE peptide and peptide 9797 (first described in Ts venom), were all identified in different proportions in the analyzed Ts venoms. This study is pioneer on assessing the influence of the starvation time and the prey diet on hyaluronidase activity as well as to describe a modification of Tricine-gel-electrophoresis to evaluate this enzyme activity. Altogether, this study reveal a large contribution of the extraction time and diet on Ts venom variability as well as present a background to recommend the cockroach diet to obtain higher protein content and the cricket diet to obtain higher hyaluronidase specific activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Berto Pucca
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Gobbi Amorim
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Felipe Augusto Cerni
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Karla de Castro Figueiredo Bordon
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Iara Aimê Cardoso
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernando Antonio Pino Anjolette
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Eliane Candiani Arantes
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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104
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Borja M, Castañeda G, Espinosa J, Neri E, Carbajal A, Clement H, García O, Alagon A. Mojave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) with Type B Venom from Mexico. COPEIA 2014. [DOI: 10.1643/ot-12-041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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105
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Gutiérrez JM, Lomonte B, Sanz L, Calvete JJ, Pla D. Immunological profile of antivenoms: preclinical analysis of the efficacy of a polyspecific antivenom through antivenomics and neutralization assays. J Proteomics 2014; 105:340-50. [PMID: 24583507 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Revised: 02/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Parenteral administration of animal-derived antivenoms constitutes the mainstay in the treatment of snakebite envenomings. Despite the fact that this therapy has been available for over a century, the detailed understanding of the neutralizing and immunoreactivity profiles of the majority of antivenoms is pending. Currently, a combination of preclinical neutralization tests and 'antivenomics', i.e. a proteomic-based assessment of antivenom immunoreactivity, provides a powerful analytical platform to investigate the preclinical efficacy of antivenoms. In this review, the studies performed on the polyvalent antivenom manufactured by Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Costa Rica, are summarized. This antivenom is prepared by immunizing horses with a mixture of the venoms of Bothrops asper, Crotalus simus and Lachesis stenophrys, and is used in Central America for the treatment of envenomings by viperid species. Overall, the antivenom shows a widespread pattern of immunological reactivity against homologous and heterologous venoms, which correlates with its ability to neutralize lethal, hemorrhagic, myotoxic, coagulant, defibrinogenating, phospholipase A2 and proteinase activities of viperid venoms. At the same time, antivenomics detected several venom components against which the antivenom shows only partial or negligible immunorecognition, such as low molecular mass vasoactive peptides, disintegrins, and some phospholipases A2, P-I metalloproteinases and serine proteinases. Such information can be used to design strategies for enhancing the antibody response of horses against poorly immunogenic, toxicologically-relevant venom components in order to further improve the efficacy of this antivenom. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE The timely parenteral administration of an appropriate antivenom remains, more than a century after the development of the first serum antivenimeux by Calmette and Phisalix and Bertrand, the only currently effective treatment for snakebite envenomings. A key technical issue in the generation of novel antivenoms is the design of optimized immunization venom mixtures that ensure that the resulting antidotes will be effective against the highest number of venoms from snakes of medical concern across the geographical range where they will be used. Antivenomics is a proteomics-based protocol developed to complement in vitro and in vivo standard preclinical tests in the qualitative and quantitative characterization of the immunological profile and the extent of cross-reactivity of antivenoms against homologous and heterologous venoms. Antivenomics is translational venomics. The combination of antivenomics and neutralization assays represents a powerful analytical platform to investigate the efficacy of antivenoms at the molecular and preclinical levels. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Proteomics of non-model organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Libia Sanz
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Spain
| | | | - Davinia Pla
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Spain.
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106
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Molecular models of the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) venom metalloproteinases reveal a structural basis for differences in hemorrhagic activities. J Biol Phys 2014; 40:193-216. [PMID: 24522289 DOI: 10.1007/s10867-013-9339-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Rattlesnake venom can differ in composition and in metalloproteinase-associated activities. The molecular basis for this intra-species variation in Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus (Mojave rattlesnake) remains an enigma. To understand the molecular basis for intra-species variation of metalloproteinase-associated activities, we modeled the three-dimensional structures of four metalloproteinases based on the amino acid sequence of four variations of the proteinase domain of the C. s. scutulatus metalloproteinase gene (GP1, GP2, GP3, and GP4). For comparative purposes, we modeled the atrolysin metalloproteinases of C. atrox as well. All molecular models shared the same topology. While the atrolysin metalloproteinase molecular models contained highly conserved substrate binding sites, the Mojave rattlesnake metalloproteinases showed higher structural divergence when superimposed onto each other. The highest structural divergence among the four C. s. scutulatus molecular models was located at the northern cleft wall and the S'1-pocket of the substrate binding site, molecular regions that modulate substrate selectivity. Molecular dynamics and field potential maps for each C. s. scutulatus metalloproteinase model demonstrated that the non-hemorrhagic metalloproteinases (GP2 and GP3) contain highly basic molecular and field potential surfaces while the hemorrhagic metalloproteinases GP1 and atrolysin C showed extensive acidic field potential maps and shallow but less dynamic active site pockets. Hence, differences in the spatial arrangement of the northern cleft wall, the S'1-pocket, and the physico-chemical environment surrounding the catalytic site contribute to differences in metalloproteinase activities in the Mojave rattlesnake. Our results provide a structural basis for variation of metalloproteinase-associated activities in the rattlesnake venom of the Mojave rattlesnake.
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107
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Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Scheib H, Gren ECK, Cochran C, Person CE, Koludarov I, Kelln W, Hayes WK, King GF, Antunes A, Fry BG. Intraspecific venom variation in the medically significant Southern Pacific Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri): biodiscovery, clinical and evolutionary implications. J Proteomics 2014; 99:68-83. [PMID: 24463169 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Due to the extreme variation of venom, which consequently results in drastically variable degrees of neutralization by CroFab antivenom, the management and treatment of envenoming by Crotalus oreganus helleri (the Southern Pacific Rattlesnake), one of the most medically significant snake species in all of North America, has been a clinician's nightmare. This snake has also been the subject of sensational news stories regarding supposed rapid (within the last few decades) evolution of its venom. This research demonstrates for the first time that variable evolutionary selection pressures sculpt the intraspecific molecular diversity of venom components in C. o. helleri. We show that myotoxic β-defensin peptides (aka: crotamines/small basic myotoxic peptides) are secreted in large amounts by all populations. However, the mature toxin-encoding nucleotide regions evolve under the constraints of negative selection, likely as a result of their non-specific mode of action which doesn't enforce them to follow the regime of the classic predator-prey chemical arms race. The hemorrhagic and tissue destroying snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) were secreted in larger amounts by the Catalina Island and Phelan rattlesnake populations, in moderate amounts in the Loma Linda population and in only trace levels by the Idyllwild population. Only the Idyllwild population in the San Jacinto Mountains contained potent presynaptic neurotoxic phospholipase A2 complex characteristic of Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) and Neotropical Rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus). The derived heterodimeric lectin toxins characteristic of viper venoms, which exhibit a diversity of biological activities, including anticoagulation, agonism/antagonism of platelet activation, or procoagulation, appear to have evolved under extremely variable selection pressures. While most lectin α- and β-chains evolved rapidly under the influence of positive Darwinian selection, the β-chain lectin of the Catalina Island population appears to have evolved under the constraint of negative selection. Both lectin chains were conspicuously absent in both the proteomics and transcriptomics of the Idyllwild population. Thus, we not only highlight the tremendous biochemical diversity in C. o. helleri's venom-arsenal, but we also show that they experience remarkably variable strengths of evolutionary selection pressures, within each toxin class among populations and among toxin classes within each population. The mapping of geographical venom variation not only provides additional information regarding venom evolution, but also has direct medical implications by allowing prediction of the clinical effects of rattlesnake bites from different regions. Such information, however, also points to these highly variable venoms as being a rich source of novel toxins which may ultimately prove to be useful in drug design and development. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results have direct implications for the treatment of envenomed patients. The variable venom profile of Crotalus oreganus helleri underscores the biodiscovery potential of novel snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Holger Scheib
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Eric C K Gren
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Carl E Person
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Wayne Kelln
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - William K Hayes
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Agosthino Antunes
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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108
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Borja M, Lazcano D, Martínez-Romero G, Morlett J, Sánchez E, Cepeda-Nieto AC, Garza-García Y, Zugasti-Cruz A. Intra-specific Variation in the Protein Composition and Proteolytic Activity of Venom of Crotalus lepidus morulus from the Northeast of Mexico. COPEIA 2013. [DOI: 10.1643/ot-13-005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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109
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Snake venomics: From the inventory of toxins to biology. Toxicon 2013; 75:44-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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110
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Sunagar K, Fry BG, Jackson TNW, Casewell NR, Undheim EAB, Vidal N, Ali SA, King GF, Vasudevan K, Vasconcelos V, Antunes A. Molecular evolution of vertebrate neurotrophins: co-option of the highly conserved nerve growth factor gene into the advanced snake venom arsenalf. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81827. [PMID: 24312363 PMCID: PMC3843689 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurotrophins are a diverse class of structurally related proteins, essential for neuronal development, survival, plasticity and regeneration. They are characterized by major family members, such as the nerve growth factors (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), which have been demonstrated here to lack coding sequence variations and follow the regime of negative selection, highlighting their extremely important conserved role in vertebrate homeostasis. However, in stark contrast, venom NGF secreted as part of the chemical arsenal of the venomous advanced snake family Elapidae (and to a lesser extent Viperidae) have characteristics consistent with the typical accelerated molecular evolution of venom components. This includes a rapid rate of diversification under the significant influence of positive-selection, with the majority of positively-selected sites found in the secreted β-polypeptide chain (74%) and on the molecular surface of the protein (92%), while the core structural and functional residues remain highly constrained. Such focal mutagenesis generates active residues on the toxin molecular surface, which are capable of interacting with novel biological targets in prey to induce a myriad of pharmacological effects. We propose that caenophidian NGFs could participate in prey-envenoming by causing a massive release of chemical mediators from mast cells to mount inflammatory reactions and increase vascular permeability, thereby aiding the spread of other toxins and/or by acting as proapoptotic factors. Despite their presence in reptilian venom having been known for over 60 years, this is the first evidence that venom-secreted NGF follows the molecular evolutionary pattern of other venom components, and thus likely participates in prey-envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Timothy N. W. Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution Group, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Eivind A. B. Undheim
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicolas Vidal
- Département Systématique et Evolution, Service de Systématique Moléculaire, UMR 7138, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Syed A. Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Glenn F. King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- * E-mail:
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111
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Lomonte B, Tsai WC, Ureña-Diaz JM, Sanz L, Mora-Obando D, Sánchez EE, Fry BG, Gutiérrez JM, Gibbs HL, Sovic MG, Calvete JJ. Venomics of New World pit vipers: genus-wide comparisons of venom proteomes across Agkistrodon. J Proteomics 2013; 96:103-16. [PMID: 24211403 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2013.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED We report a genus-wide comparison of venom proteome variation across New World pit vipers in the genus Agkistrodon. Despite the wide variety of habitats occupied by this genus and that all its taxa feed on diverse species of vertebrates and invertebrate prey, the venom proteomes of copperheads, cottonmouths, and cantils are remarkably similar, both in the type and relative abundance of their different toxin families. The venoms from all the eleven species and subspecies sampled showed relatively similar proteolytic and PLA2 activities. In contrast, quantitative differences were observed in hemorrhagic and myotoxic activities in mice. The highest myotoxic activity was observed with the venoms of A. b. bilineatus, followed by A. p. piscivorus, whereas the venoms of A. c. contortrix and A. p. leucostoma induced the lowest myotoxic activity. The venoms of Agkistrodon bilineatus subspecies showed the highest hemorrhagic activity and A. c. contortrix the lowest. Compositional and toxicological analyses agree with clinical observations of envenomations by Agkistrodon in the USA and Central America. A comparative analysis of Agkistrodon shows that venom divergence tracks phylogeny of this genus to a greater extent than in Sistrurus rattlesnakes, suggesting that the distinct natural histories of Agkistrodon and Sistrurus clades may have played a key role in molding the patterns of evolution of their venom protein genes. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE A deep understanding of the structural and functional profiles of venoms and of the principles governing the evolution of venomous systems is a goal of venomics. Isolated proteomics analyses have been conducted on venoms from many species of vipers and pit vipers. However, making sense of these large inventories of data requires the integration of this information across multiple species to identify evolutionary and ecological trends. Our genus-wide venomics study provides a comprehensive overview of the toxic arsenal across Agkistrodon and a ground for understanding the natural histories of, and clinical observations of envenomations by, species of this genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
| | - Wan-Chih Tsai
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Juan Manuel Ureña-Diaz
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Libia Sanz
- Laboratorio de Venómica y Proteinómica Estructural, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Diana Mora-Obando
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center, Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Michael G Sovic
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica y Proteinómica Estructural, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain.
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112
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Dias GS, Kitano ES, Pagotto AH, Sant’anna SS, Rocha MMT, Zelanis A, Serrano SMT. Individual Variability in the Venom Proteome of Juvenile Bothrops jararaca Specimens. J Proteome Res 2013; 12:4585-98. [DOI: 10.1021/pr4007393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela S. Dias
- Laboratório
Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada - CeTICS, Instituto Butantan, São
Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Eduardo S. Kitano
- Laboratório
Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada - CeTICS, Instituto Butantan, São
Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
- Instituto de Química,
Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-070, Brazil
| | - Ana H. Pagotto
- Laboratório
Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada - CeTICS, Instituto Butantan, São
Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Sávio S. Sant’anna
- Laboratório
de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Marisa M. T. Rocha
- Laboratório
de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - André Zelanis
- Laboratório
Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada - CeTICS, Instituto Butantan, São
Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Solange M. T. Serrano
- Laboratório
Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada - CeTICS, Instituto Butantan, São
Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
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113
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Comparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies Crotalus lepidus lepidus, Crotalus lepidus klauberi and Crotalus lepidus morulus from Mexico. Toxicon 2013; 71:84-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2013] [Revised: 05/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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114
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Genetic Basis for Variation of Metalloproteinase-Associated Biochemical Activity in Venom of the Mojave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus). Biochem Res Int 2013; 2013:251474. [PMID: 23984070 PMCID: PMC3745941 DOI: 10.1155/2013/251474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The metalloproteinase composition and biochemical profiles of rattlesnake venom can be highly variable among rattlesnakes of the same species. We have previously shown that the neurotoxic properties of the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) are associated with the presence of the Mojave toxin A subunit suggesting the existence of a genetic basis for rattlesnake venom composition. In this report, we hypothesized the existence of a genetic basis for intraspecies variation in metalloproteinase-associated biochemical properties of rattlesnake venom of the Mojave rattlesnake. To address this question, we PCR-amplified and compared the genomic DNA nucleotide sequences that code for the mature metalloproteinase domain of fourteen Mojave rattlesnakes captured from different geographical locations across the southwest region of the United States. In addition, the venoms from the same rattlesnakes were tested for their ability to hydrolyze fibrinogen, fibrin, casein, and hide powder azure and for induction of hemorrhage in mice. Overall, based on genomic sequencing and biochemical data, we classified Mojave rattlesnake venom into four distinct groups of metalloproteinases. These findings indicate that differences in nucleotide sequences encoding the mature proteinase domain and noncoding regions contribute to differences in venom metalloproteinase activities among rattlesnakes of the same species.
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115
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Castro EN, Lomonte B, del Carmen Gutiérrez M, Alagón A, Gutiérrez JM. Intraspecies variation in the venom of the rattlesnake Crotalus simus from Mexico: Different expression of crotoxin results in highly variable toxicity in the venoms of three subspecies. J Proteomics 2013; 87:103-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2013.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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116
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The genesis of an exceptionally lethal venom in the timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) revealed through comparative venom-gland transcriptomics. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:394. [PMID: 23758969 PMCID: PMC3701607 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Snake venoms generally show sequence and quantitative variation within and between species, but some rattlesnakes have undergone exceptionally rapid, dramatic shifts in the composition, lethality, and pharmacological effects of their venoms. Such shifts have occurred within species, most notably in Mojave (Crotalus scutulatus), South American (C. durissus), and timber (C. horridus) rattlesnakes, resulting in some populations with extremely potent, neurotoxic venoms without the hemorrhagic effects typical of rattlesnake bites. Results To better understand the evolutionary changes that resulted in the potent venom of a population of C. horridus from northern Florida, we sequenced the venom-gland transcriptome of an animal from this population for comparison with the previously described transcriptome of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake (C. adamanteus), a congener with a more typical rattlesnake venom. Relative to the toxin transcription of C. adamanteus, which consisted primarily of snake-venom metalloproteinases, C-type lectins, snake-venom serine proteinases, and myotoxin-A, the toxin transcription of C. horridus was far simpler in composition and consisted almost entirely of snake-venom serine proteinases, phospholipases A2, and bradykinin-potentiating and C-type natriuretic peptides. Crotalus horridus lacked significant expression of the hemorrhagic snake-venom metalloproteinases and C-type lectins. Evolution of shared toxin families involved differential expansion and loss of toxin clades within each species and pronounced differences in the highly expressed toxin paralogs. Toxin genes showed significantly higher rates of nonsynonymous substitution than nontoxin genes. The expression patterns of nontoxin genes were conserved between species, despite the vast differences in toxin expression. Conclusions Our results represent the first complete, sequence-based comparison between the venoms of closely related snake species and reveal in unprecedented detail the rapid evolution of snake venoms. We found that the difference in venom properties resulted from major changes in expression levels of toxin gene families, differential gene-family expansion and loss, changes in which paralogs within gene families were expressed at high levels, and higher nonsynonymous substitution rates in the toxin genes relative to nontoxins. These massive alterations in the genetics of the venom phenotype emphasize the evolutionary lability and flexibility of this ecologically critical trait.
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117
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Durban J, Pérez A, Sanz L, Gómez A, Bonilla F, Rodríguez S, Chacón D, Sasa M, Angulo Y, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ. Integrated "omics" profiling indicates that miRNAs are modulators of the ontogenetic venom composition shift in the Central American rattlesnake, Crotalus simus simus. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:234. [PMID: 23575160 PMCID: PMC3660174 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the processes that drive the evolution of snake venom is a topic of great research interest in molecular and evolutionary toxinology. Recent studies suggest that ontogenetic changes in venom composition are genetically controlled rather than environmentally induced. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these changes remain elusive. Here we have explored the basis and level of regulation of the ontogenetic shift in the venom composition of the Central American rattlesnake, Crotalus s. simus using a combined proteomics and transcriptomics approach. RESULTS Proteomic analysis showed that the ontogenetic shift in the venom composition of C. s. simus is essentially characterized by a gradual reduction in the expression of serine proteinases and PLA2 molecules, particularly crotoxin, a β-neurotoxic heterodimeric PLA2, concominantly with an increment of PI and PIII metalloproteinases at age 9-18 months. Comparison of the transcriptional activity of the venom glands of neonate and adult C. s. simus specimens indicated that their transcriptomes exhibit indistinguisable toxin family profiles, suggesting that the elusive mechanism by which shared transcriptomes generate divergent venom phenotypes may operate post-transcriptionally. Specifically, miRNAs with frequency count of 1000 or greater exhibited an uneven distribution between the newborn and adult datasets. Of note, 590 copies of a miRNA targeting crotoxin B-subunit was exclusively found in the transcriptome of the adult snake, whereas 1185 copies of a miRNA complementary to a PIII-SVMP mRNA was uniquely present in the newborn dataset. These results support the view that age-dependent changes in the concentration of miRNA modulating the transition from a crotoxin-rich to a SVMP-rich venom from birth through adulthood can potentially explain what is observed in the proteomic analysis of the ontogenetic changes in the venom composition of C. s. simus. CONCLUSIONS Existing snake venom toxins are the result of early recruitment events in the Toxicofera clade of reptiles by which ordinary genes were duplicated, and the new genes selectively expressed in the venom gland and amplified to multigene families with extensive neofunctionalization throughout the approximately 112-125 million years of ophidian evolution. Our findings support the view that understanding the phenotypic diversity of snake venoms requires a deep knowledge of the mechanisms regulating the transcriptional and translational activity of the venom gland. Our results suggest a functional role for miRNAs. The impact of specific miRNAs in the modulation of venom composition, and the integration of the mechanisms responsible for the generation of these miRNAs in the evolutionary landscape of the snake's venom gland, are further challenges for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Durban
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Jaime Roig 11, Valencia 46010, Spain
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