Collagen Structural Hierarchy and Susceptibility to Degradation by Ultraviolet Radiation

Damage to skin extracellular matrix induced by UV exposure

SIGNIFICANCE

Chronic exposure to environmental ultraviolet radiation (UVR) plays a key role in both photocarcinogenesis and induction of accelerated skin aging. Although the spatiotemporal consequences of UVR exposure for the composition and architecture of the dermal extracellular matrix (ECM) are well characterized, the pathogenesis of photoaging remains poorly defined. Given the compelling evidence for the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as mediators of photoaging, UVR-exposed human skin may be an accessible model system in which to characterize the role of oxidative damage in both internal and external tissues.

RECENT ADVANCES

Although the cell-mediated degradation of dermal components via UVR-induced expression of ECM proteases has long been identified as an integral part of the photoaging pathway, the relative importance and identity of cellular and extracellular photosensitizers (direct hit and bystanders models, respectively) in initiating this enzymatic activity is unclear. Recently, both age-related protein glycation and relative amino-acid composition have been identified as potential risk factors for photo-ionization and/or photo-sensitization. Here, we propose a selective multi-hit model of photoaging.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Bioinformatic analyses can be employed to identify candidate UVR targets/photosensitizers, but the action of UVR on protein structure and/or ROS production should be verified experimentally. Crucially, in the case of biochemically active ECM components such as fibronectin and fibrillin, the downstream effects of photo-degradation on tissue homeostasis remain to be confirmed.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Both topical antioxidants and inhibitors of detrimental cell signaling may be effective in abrogating the effects of specific UVR-mediated protein degradation in the dermis.

Stability of silk and collagen protein materials in space

Collagen and silk materials, in neat forms and as silica composites, were flown for 18 months on the International Space Station [Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE)-6] to assess the impact of space radiation on structure and function. As natural biomaterials, the impact of the space environment on films of these proteins was investigated to understand fundamental changes in structure and function related to the future utility in materials and medicine in space environments. About 15% of the film surfaces were etched by heavy ionizing particles such as atomic oxygen, the major component of the low-Earth orbit space environment. Unexpectedly, more than 80% of the silk and collagen materials were chemically crosslinked by space radiation. These findings are critical for designing next-generation biocompatible materials for contact with living systems in space environments, where the effects of heavy ionizing particles and other cosmic radiation need to be considered.

Moisture absorption and retention properties, and activity in alleviating skin photodamage of collagen polypeptide from marine fish skin

Collagen polypeptides were prepared from cod skin. Moisture absorption and retention properties of collagen polypeptides were determined at different relative humidities. In addition, the protective effects of collagen polypeptide against UV-induced damage to mouse skin were evaluated. Collagen polypeptides had good moisture absorption and retention properties and could alleviate the damage induced by UV radiation. The action mechanisms of collagen polypeptide mainly involved enhancing immunity, reducing the loss of moisture and lipid, promoting anti-oxidative properties, inhibiting the increase of glycosaminoglycans, repairing the endogenous collagen and elastin protein fibres, and maintaining the ratio of type III to type I collagen.

Structural study and preliminary biological evaluation on the collagen hydrogel crosslinked by γ-irradiation

Under γ-irradiation, concentrated collagen solutions yielded collagen hydrogels and liquid products. The molecular structure of collagen hydrogels and the source of the liquid products were studied. Furthermore, preliminary biological properties of the hydrogels were investigated. The results revealed that crosslinking occurred to form collagen hydrogel and the crosslinking density increased with the increasing of the absorbed dose, and the collagen hydrogels showed enhanced mechanical properties. Meanwhile, collagen underwent radiation degradation and water was squeezed out from hydrogel by contraction of hydrogel, yielding liquid products. Collagen hydrogels induced by γ-irradiation maintained the backbone structure of collagen, and tyrosine partially involved in crosslinking. The irradiated collagen hydrogels have higher denatured temperature, can promote fibroblasts proliferation, and their degradation rate in vivo depended on the absorbed dose. The comprehensive results suggested that the collagen hydrogels prepared by radiation crosslinking preserved the triple helical conformation, possessed improved thermal stability and mechanical properties, excellent biocompatibility, which is expected to favor its application as biomaterials.

Dissolution and regeneration of collagen fibers using ionic liquid

Native skin collagen fibers were successfully dissolved in the ionic liquid, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM]Cl), and regenerated in different precipitators. The observation by polarized optical microscopy showed that the crystal structure of collagen fibers had been destroyed by [BMIM]Cl during the heating. Temperature-dependent FTIR was applied to detect the structural change of collagen/[BMIM]Cl during dissolving. The structure of regenerated collagen was characterized by FTIR and XRD. It showed that the triple helical structure of collagen had been partly destroyed during the dissolution and regeneration. The film forming ability and the thermostability of the regenerated collagen was highly dependent on the precipitating treatment. The possible mechanisms of dissolving of collagen in [BMIM]Cl and the regeneration in the precipitators have been proposed. The collagen/cellulose composite with different forms (film, fiber, gel) can be successfully prepared by using [BMIM]Cl as medium.

UV damage of collagen: insights from model collagen peptides

Fibrils of Type I collagen in the skin are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light and there have been claims that collagen photo-degradation leads to wrinkles and may contribute to skin cancers. To understand the effects of UV radiation on collagen, Type I collagen solutions were exposed to the UV-C wavelength of 254 nm for defined lengths of time at 4°C. Circular dichroism (CD) experiments show that irradiation of collagen leads to high loss of triple helical content with a new lower thermal stability peak and SDS-gel electrophoresis indicates breakdown of collagen chains. To better define the effects of UV radiation on the collagen triple-helix, the studies were extended to peptides which model the collagen sequence and conformation. CD studies showed irradiation for days led to lower magnitudes of the triple-helix maximum at 225 nm and lower thermal stabilities for two peptides containing multiple Gly-Pro-Hyp triplets. In contrast, the highest radiation exposure led to little change in the T(m) values of (Gly-Pro-Pro)(10) and (Ala-Hyp-Gly)(10) , although (Gly-Pro-Pro)(10) did show a significant decrease in triple helix intensity. Mass spectroscopy indicated preferential cleavage sites within the peptides, and identification of some of the most susceptible sites of cleavage. The effect of radiation on these well defined peptides gives insight into the sequence and conformational specificity of photo-degradation of collagen.

Thin film assembly of spider silk-like block copolymers

We report the self-assembly of monolayers of spider silk-like block copolymers. Langmuir isotherms were obtained for a series of bioengineered variants of the spider silks, and stable monolayers were generated. Langmuir-Blodgett films were prepared by transferring the monolayers onto silica substrates and were subsequently analyzed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Static contact angle measurements were performed to characterize interactions across the interface (thin film, water, air), and molecular modeling was used to predict 3D conformation of spider silk-like block copolymers. The influence of molecular architecture and volume fraction of the proteins on the self-assembly process was assessed. At high surface pressure, spider silk-like block copolymers with minimal hydrophobic block (f(A) = 12%) formed oblate structures, whereas block copolymer with a 6-fold larger hydrophobic domain (f(A) = 46%) formed prolate structures. The varied morphologies obtained with increased hydrophobicity offer new options for biomaterials for coatings and related options. The design and use of bioengineered protein block copolymers assembled at air-water interfaces provides a promising approach to compare 2D microstructures and molecular architectures of these amphiphiles, leading to more rationale designs for a range of nanoengineered biomaterial needs as well as providing a basis of comparison to more traditional synthetic block copolymer systems.

Fabrication and characterization of hierarchically organized nanoparticle-reinforced nanofibrous composite scaffolds

Two different techniques were used to fabricate nanoparticle-reinforced nanofibrous scaffolds with different organizations of the minerals. First, a three-dimensional (3D) cylindrical nanofibrous scaffold made of poly-L-lactide and poly(L-lactide)/collagen (1:1) was fabricated using a modified electrospinning method. An alternating dipping method and a flow version of it were used to mineralize the 3D scaffolds. Flow mineralization was found to significantly improve the distribution of the mineral nanoparticles throughout the 3D nanofibrous scaffold, while mineral nanoparticles were found only on the periphery of the static mineralized scaffold. As a result of the mineral nanoparticle distribution, the compressive strength and modulus of the flow mineralized scaffold was found to be significantly greater than that of the static mineralized scaffold, despite having a lower mineral content. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis and X-ray diffraction studies suggest that the mineral was composed of heterogeneous phases of calcium phosphates. This study demonstrates the importance of hierarchical and deliberate organization of the nanocomponents to optimize the mechanical properties, as is often found in nature.

Role of polyalanine domains in beta-sheet formation in spider silk block copolymers

Genetically engineered spider silk-like block copolymers were studied to determine the influence of polyalanine domain size on secondary structure. The role of polyalanine block distribution on beta-sheet formation was explored using FT-IR and WAXS. The number of polyalanine blocks had a direct effect on the formation of crystalline beta-sheets, reflected in the change in crystallinity index as the blocks of polyalanines increased. WAXS analysis confirmed the crystalline nature of the sample with the largest number of polyalanine blocks. This approach provides a platform for further exploration of the role of specific amino acid chemistries in regulating the assembly of beta-sheet secondary structures, leading to options to regulate material properties through manipulation of this key component in spider silks.

Influence of telopeptides, fibrils and crosslinking on physicochemical properties of type I collagen films

Type I collagen is widely used in various different forms for research and commercial applications. Different forms of collagen may be classified according to their source, extraction method, crosslinking and resultant ultrastructure. In this study, afibrillar and reconstituted fibrillar films, derived from acid soluble and pepsin digested Type I collagen, were analysed using Lateral Force Microscopy (LFM), Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and enzymatic stability assays to asses the influence of telopeptides, fibrils and crosslinking. LFM proved to be a useful technique to confirm an afibrillar/fibrillar ultrastructure and to elucidate fibril diameters. FTIR has proved insensitive to ultrastructural differences involving telopeptides and fibrils. DSC results showed a significant increase in T(d) for crosslinked samples (+22-28 degrees C), and demonstrated that the thermal behaviour of hydrated, afibrillar films is more akin to reconstituted fibrillar films than monomeric solutions. The enzymatic stability assay has provided new evidence to show that afibrillar films of Type I collagen can be significantly more resistant to collagenase (by up to 3.5 times), than reconstituted fibrillar films, as a direct consequence of the different spatial arrangement of collagen molecules. A novel mechanism for this phenomenon is proposed and discussed. Additionally, the presence of telopeptide regions in afibrillar tropocollagen samples has been shown to increase resistance to collagenase by greater than 3.5 times compared to counterpart afibrillar atelocollagen samples. One-factor ANOVA analysis, with Fisher's LSD post-hoc test, confirms these key findings to be of statistical significance (P < 0.05). The profound physicochemical effects of collagen ultrastructure demonstrated in this study reiterates the need for comprehensive materials disclosure and classification when using these biomaterials.