Multilocus sequence typing--what is resolved?

New methods for inferring population dynamics from microbial sequences

The reduced cost of high throughput sequencing, increasing automation, and the amenability of sequence data for evolutionary analysis are making DNA data (or the corresponding amino acid sequences) the molecular marker of choice for studying microbial population genetics and phylogenetics. Concomitantly, due to the ever-increasing computational power, new, more accurate (and sometimes faster), sequence-based analytical approaches are being developed and applied to these new data. Here we review some commonly used, recently improved, and newly developed methodologies for inferring population dynamics and evolutionary relationships using nucleotide and amino acid sequence data, including: alignment, model selection, bifurcating and network phylogenetic approaches, and methods for estimating demographic history, population structure, and population parameters (recombination, genetic diversity, growth, and natural selection). Because of the extensive literature published on these topics this review cannot be comprehensive in its scope. Instead, for all the methods discussed we introduce the approaches we think are particularly useful for analyses of microbial sequences and where possible, include references to recent and more inclusive reviews.

Rickettsiae phylogeny: a multigenic approach

The development of molecular taxonomic methods has provided a large amount of data in the reorganization of Rickettsiae taxonomy. Nevertheless, phylogenetic relationships among some groups and species delimitation remain unclear. To clarify rickettsial phylogeny, a multigenic approach was used for the first time for the genus Rickettsia, based on simultaneous analyses of eight loci: atpA, recA, virB4, dnaA, dnaK, rrl-rrf internal transcribed spacer, ompA and gltA. Concatenation of different nucleotide sequences resulted in an improvement in phylogenetic resolution when compared to single gene data. This multigenic approach has enabled the differentiation of many groups, including the spotted fever group which includes a great number of closely related species. The reliability of some previously recognized groups was evaluated.

Guidelines for the validation and application of typing methods for use in bacterial epidemiology

For bacterial typing to be useful, the development, validation and appropriate application of typing methods must follow unified criteria. Over a decade ago, ESGEM, the ESCMID (Europen Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases) Study Group on Epidemiological Markers, produced guidelines for optimal use and quality assessment of the then most frequently used typing procedures. We present here an update of these guidelines, taking into account the spectacular increase in the number and quality of typing methods made available over the past decade. Newer and older, phenotypic and genotypic methods for typing of all clinically relevant bacterial species are described according to their principles, advantages and disadvantages. Criteria for their evaluation and application and the interpretation of their results are proposed. Finally, the issues of reporting, standardisation, quality assessment and international networks are discussed. It must be emphasised that typing results can never stand alone and need to be interpreted in the context of all available epidemiological, clinical and demographical data relating to the infectious disease under investigation. A strategic effort on the part of all workers in the field is thus mandatory to combat emerging infectious diseases, as is financial support from national and international granting bodies and health authorities.

Vibrio cholerae strain typing and phylogeny study based on simple sequence repeats

Vibrio cholerae is the etiological agent of cholera. Its natural reservoir is the aquatic environment. To date, practical typing of V. cholerae is mainly serological and requires about 200 antisera. Simple sequence repeats (SSR), also termed VNTR (for variable number of tandem repeats), provide a source of high genomic polymorphism used in bacterial typing. Here we describe an SSR-based typing method that combines the variation in highly mutable SSR loci, with that of shorter, relatively more stable mononucleotide repeat (MNR) loci, for accurate and rapid typing of V. cholerae. In silico screening of the V. cholerae genome revealed thousands of perfect SSR tracts with an average frequency of one SSR every 152 bp. A panel of 32 V. cholerae strains, representing both clinical and environmental isolates, was tested for polymorphism in SSR loci. Two strategies were applied to identify SSR variation: polymorphism of SSR tracts longer than 12 bp (L-SSR) assessed by capillary fragment-size analysis and MNR polymorphism assessed by sequencing. The nine L-SSR loci tested were all polymorphic, displaying 2 to 13 alleles per locus. Sequence analysis of eight MNR-containing loci (MNR-multilocus sequence typing [MLST]) provided information on both variations in the MNR tract itself, and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in their flanking sequences. Phylogenetic analysis of the combined SSR data showed a clear discrimination between the clinical strains belonging to O1 and O139 serogroups, and the environmental isolates. Furthermore, discrimination between 27 strains of the 32 strains was achieved. SSR-based typing methods combining L-SSR and MNR-MLST were found to be efficient for V. cholerae typing.

Streamlining and simplification of microbial genome architecture

The genomes of unicellular species, particularly prokaryotes, are greatly reduced in size and simplified in terms of gene structure relative to those of multicellular eukaryotes. Arguments proposed to explain this disparity include selection for metabolic efficiency and elevated rates of deletion in microbes, but the evidence in support of these hypotheses is at best equivocal. An alternative explanation based on fundamental population-genetic principles is proposed here. By increasing the mutational target sizes of associated genes, most forms of nonfunctional DNA are opposed by weak selection. Free-living microbial species have elevated effective population sizes, and the consequent reduction in the power of random genetic drift appears to be sufficient to enable natural selection to inhibit the accumulation of excess DNA. This hypothesis provides a potentially unifying explanation for the continuity in genomic scaling from prokaryotes to multicellular eukaryotes, the divergent patterns of mitochondrial evolution in animals and land plants, and various aspects of genomic modification in microbial endosymbionts.

Probe hybridization array typing: a binary typing method for Escherichia coli

The ability to distinguish between Escherichia coli strains is critical for outbreak investigations. Binary typing, based on the presence or absence of genetic material, provides a high-throughput alternative to gel- and PCR-based typing techniques that generate complex banding patterns and lack uniform interpretation criteria. We developed, validated, and determined the discriminatory power of an E. coli binary typing method, probe hybridization array typing (PHAT). In PHAT, the absence or presence of genetic material is identified by using DNA hybridization to produce a reproducible and portable fingerprint for each genome. PHAT probes were generated from genome subtractive hybridization experiments. We PHAT typed the ECOR collection of strains from a variety of geographical locations, and 33 rectal E. coli strains selected from college-aged women with urinary tract infection. In the set of 33 human rectal strains, the discriminatory power of PHAT (98%) equaled that of multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. However, for ECOR strains, which include nonhuman strains, the current set of PHAT probes was less discriminating than MLST, ribotyping, and enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequence PCR (80% versus 97, 92, and 97%, respectively). When we limited the analysis to ECOR strains of B2 and D lineage, which are associated with human infection, current PHAT probes were highly discriminatory (94%). PHAT can be applied in a high-throughput format (i.e., "library on a slide"), the discriminatory ability can be varied based on the probe set, and PHAT is readily adapted to other bacterial species with high variation in genetic content.

Comparison of multilocus sequence typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and antimicrobial susceptibility typing for characterization of Salmonella enterica serotype Newport isolates

In the United States, multidrug-resistant phenotypes of Salmonella enterica serotype Newport (commonly referred to as MDR-AmpC) have emerged in animals and humans and have become a major public health problem. Although pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) is the current "gold standard" typing method for Salmonella, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) may be more relevant to investigations exploring evolutionary and population biology relationships. In this study, 81 Salmonella enterica serotype Newport isolates from humans, food animals, and retail foods were examined for antimicrobial susceptibility and characterized using PFGE and MLST of seven genes, aroC, dnaN, hemD, hisD, purE, sucA, and thrA. Forty-nine percent of the isolates were resistant to nine or more of the tested antimicrobials. Salmonella isolates displayed resistance most often to sulfamethoxazole (57%), streptomycin (56%), tetracycline (56%), ampicillin (52%), and ceftiofur (49%) and, to a lesser extent, to kanamycin (19%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (17%), and gentamicin (11%). A total of 43 PFGE patterns were generated using XbaI, indicating a genetically diverse population. The largest PFGE cluster contained isolates from clinically ill swine, cattle, and humans. MLST resulted in 12 sequence types (STs), with one type encompassing 62% of the strains. Ten new sequence types and one novel allele type were identified. Furthermore, MLST typing showed that strains closely related by PFGE clustered in major STs, whereas more distantly related strains were separated into two clusters by PFGE. The results of this study demonstrated that the MLST scheme employed here clustered S. enterica serovar Newport isolates in distinct molecular populations, and strain discrimination was enhanced by combining PFGE, antimicrobial susceptibility, and MLST results.

Genetic population structure of the soil bacterium Myxococcus xanthus at the centimeter scale

Myxococcus xanthus is a gram-negative soil bacterium best known for its remarkable life history of social swarming, social predation, and multicellular fruiting body formation. Very little is known about genetic diversity within this species or how social strategies might vary among neighboring strains at small spatial scales. To investigate the small-scale population structure of M. xanthus, 78 clones were isolated from a patch of soil (16 by 16 cm) in Tübingen, Germany. Among these isolates, 21 genotypes could be distinguished from a concatemer of three gene fragments: csgA (developmental C signal), fibA (extracellular matrix-associated zinc metalloprotease), and pilA (the pilin subunit of type IV pili). Accumulation curves showed that most of the diversity present at this scale was sampled. The pilA gene contains both conserved and highly variable regions, and two frequency-distribution tests provide evidence for balancing selection on this gene. The functional domains in the csgA gene were found to be conserved. Three instances of lateral gene transfer could be inferred from a comparison of individual gene phylogenies, but no evidence was found for linkage equilibrium, supporting the view that M. xanthus evolution is largely clonal. This study shows that M. xanthus is surrounded by a variety of distinct conspecifics in its natural soil habitat at a spatial scale at which encounters among genotypes are likely.

Genetic variability in environmental isolates of Legionella pneumophila from Comunidad Valenciana (Spain)

Legionella pneumophila is associated to recurrent outbreaks in several Comunidad Valenciana (Spain) localities, especially in Alcoi, where social and climatic conditions seem to provide an excellent environment for bacterial growth. We have analysed the nucleotide sequences of three loci from 25 environmental isolates from Alcoi and nearby locations sampled over 3 years. The analysis of these isolates has revealed a substantial level of genetic variation, with consistent patterns of variability across loci, and comparable to that found in a large, European-wide sampling of clinical isolates. Among the tree loci studied, fliC showed the highest level of nucleotide diversity. The analysis of isolates sampled in different years revealed a clear differentiation, with samples from 2001 being significantly distinct from those obtained in 2002 and 2003. Furthermore, although linkage disequilibrium measures indicate a clonal nature for population structure in this sample, the presence of some recombination events cannot be ruled out.

Application of Multi Locus Sequence Typing to the analysis of the biodiversity of indigenous Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine yeasts from Lebanon

AIMS

To assess suitability of Multi Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) for investigating the biodiversity of wine yeast strains. This method was compared with established ones like microsatellite analysis or amplification of genomic regions flanked by repeated (delta) elements.

METHODS AND RESULTS

DNA fragments were amplified and sequenced for 26 loci representing housekeeping genes, open reading frames (ORFs) of unknown functions or intergenic regions. A set of seven loci was tested on 84 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, including 65 strains isolated from traditional wineries in Lebanon, commercial wine strains and Asian isolates. An overall sequence diversity of 2.05% was observed, consisting of single nucleotide polymorphisms, 60% of them occurring in a heterozygous state. The number of polymorphic sites per locus varied between 4 and 14. The same set of strains was analysed by microsatellite typing on six polymorphic loci and by interdelta amplification.

CONCLUSIONS

Clustering of MLST profiles clearly differentiated the Asian group of strains from Lebanese and European commercial strains that appear closely related. The current MLST scheme appears less discriminatory (92.27%) on closely related wine yeasts than microsatellite or interdelta typing (>99%).

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

MLST is a highly reliable method for relatedness inference and promising for wine yeast typing.

Multilocus sequence typing of Porphyromonas gingivalis strains from different geographic origins

Porphyromonas gingivalis is an important periodontal pathogen that can be isolated from both active and inactive periodontal lesions. Apparently, differences in virulence between P. gingivalis strains exist, but the mechanisms underlying these differences are not yet fully understood. To obtain more information about pathogenicity and virulence of P. gingivalis, it is relevant to assess the genetic population structure of the species and to examine the occurrence of putative virulence factors against the genetic background. Presently, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) is the best method for analyzing bacterial population structures. Forty P. gingivalis strains from worldwide sources were analyzed by MLST. Internal 310- to 420-bp DNA fragments of the eight ubiquitous chromosomal genes, ftsQ, hagB, gdpxJ, pepO, mcmA, recA, pga, and nah, were amplified by PCR and then sequenced. The number of alleles at individual loci ranged from 2 to 19, and a total of 33 allelic profiles, or sequence types (STs), were identified. Nucleotide variation between alleles was located at one or a few sites. Identical or similar STs were found in isolates from different geographic regions. Our results showed signs of a clonal population structure with a level of recombination not as high as that previously suggested for the species. We also found that P. gingivalis isolates from individual patients were genetically heterogeneous.

Population genetics of microbial pathogens estimated from multilocus sequence typing (MLST) data

The inference of population recombination (rho), population mutation (Theta), and adaptive selection is of great interest in microbial population genetics. These parameters can be efficiently estimated using explicit statistical frameworks (evolutionary models) that describe their effect on gene sequences. Within this framework, we estimated rho and Theta using a coalescent approach, and adaptive (or destabilizing) selection under heterogeneous codon-based and amino acid property models in microbial sequences from MLST databases. We analyzed a total of 91 different housekeeping gene regions (loci) corresponding to one fungal and sixteen bacterial pathogens. Our results show that these three population parameters vary extensively across species and loci, but they do not seem to be correlated. For the most part, estimated recombination rates among species agree well with previous studies. Over all taxa, the rho/Theta ratio suggests that each factor contributes similarly to the emergence of variant alleles. Comparisons of Theta estimated under finite- and infinite-site models indicate that recurrent mutation (i.e., multiple mutations at some sites) can increase Theta by up to 39%. Significant evidence of molecular adaptation was detected in 28 loci from 13 pathogens. Three of these loci showed concordant patterns of adaptive selection in two to four different species.

Multilocus sequence typing of Escherichia coli O26:H11 isolates carrying stx in canada does not identify genetic diversity

Multilocus sequence typing of 31 stx-carrying Escherichia coli O26:H11 strains isolated in Canada between 1999 and 2003 revealed a high degree of genetic relatedness at 10 loci, suggesting either that this is a clonal serotype (similar to O157:H7) or that additional genetic loci need to be examined.

Opinion: Re-evaluating prokaryotic species

There is no widely accepted concept of species for prokaryotes, and assignment of isolates to species is based on measures of phenotypic or genome similarity. The current methods for defining prokaryotic species are inadequate and incapable of keeping pace with the levels of diversity that are being uncovered in nature. Prokaryotic taxonomy is being influenced by advances in microbial population genetics, ecology and genomics, and by the ease with which sequence data can be obtained. Here, we review the classical approaches to prokaryotic species definition and discuss the current and future impact of multilocus nucleotide-sequence-based approaches to prokaryotic systematics. We also consider the potential, and difficulties, of assigning species status to biologically or ecologically meaningful sequence clusters.

Population genetics of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in a high-prevalence community using a hypervariable outer membrane porB and 13 slowly evolving housekeeping genes

Baltimore, Md., is an urban community with a high prevalence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Due to partially protective immune responses, introduction of new strains from other host populations, and exposure of N. gonorrhoeae to antibiotics, the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the circulating strains can fluctuate over time. Understanding the overall genetic diversity and population structure of N. gonorrhoeae is essential for informing public health interventions to eliminate this pathogen. We studied gonococci population genetics in Baltimore by analyzing a hypervariable and strongly selected outer membrane porB gene and 13 slowly evolving and presumably neutral housekeeping genes (abcZ, adk, aroE, fumC, gdh, glnA, gnd, pdhC, pgm, pilA, ppk, pyrD, and serC) in 204 isolates collected in 1991, 1996, and 2001 from male and female patients of two public sexually transmitted diseases clinics. Genetic diversity (), recombination (C), growth (g), population structure, and adaptive selection under codon-substitution and amino acid property models were estimated and compared between these two gene classes. Estimates of the F(ST) fixation index and the chi(2) test of sequence absolute frequencies revealed significant temporal substructuring for both gene types. Baltimore's N. gonorrhoeae populations have increased since 1991 as indicated by consistent positive values of g. Female patients showed similar or lower levels of and C than male patients. Within the MLST housekeeping genes, levels of and C ranged from 0.001-0.013 and 0.000-0.018, respectively. Overall recombination seems to be the dominant force driving evolution in these populations. All loci showed amino acid sites and physicochemical properties under adaptive (or positive-destabilizing) selection, rejecting the generally assumed hypothesis of stabilizing selection for these MLST genes. Within the porB gene, protein I B showed higher and C values than protein I A. Directional positive selection possibly mediated by the immune system operates to a significant extent in the protein I sequences, as indicated by the distribution of the positively selected sites in the surface-exposed loops. Thirteen amino acid physicochemical properties seem to drive protein evolution of the PI porins in N. gonorrhoeae.