Supramolecular Architectures with π-Acidic 3,6-Bis(2-pyridyl)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine Cavities: Role of Anion−π Interactions in the Remarkable Stability of Fe(II) Metallacycles in Solution

Advances in anion supramolecular chemistry: from recognition to chemical applications

Since the start of this millennium, remarkable progress in the binding and sensing of anions has been taking place, driven in part by discoveries in the use of hydrogen bonding, as well as the previously under-exploited anion-π interactions and halogen bonding. However, anion supramolecular chemistry has developed substantially beyond anion recognition, and now encompasses a diverse range of disciplines. Dramatic advance has been made in the anion-templated synthesis of macrocycles and interlocked molecular architectures, while the study of transmembrane anion transporters has flourished from almost nothing into a rapidly maturing field of research. The supramolecular chemistry of anions has also found real practical use in a variety of applications such as catalysis, ion extraction, and the use of anions as stimuli for responsive chemical systems.

Toward a more complete understanding of noncovalent interactions involving aromatic rings

Noncovalent interactions involving aromatic rings, which include π-stacking interactions, anion-π interactions, and XH-π interactions, among others, are ubiquitous in chemical and biochemical systems. Despite dramatic advances in our understanding of these interactions over the past decade, many aspects of these noncovalent interactions have only recently been uncovered, with many questions remaining. We summarize our computational studies aimed at understanding the impact of substituents and heteroatoms on these noncovalent interactions. In particular, we discuss our local, direct interaction model of substituent effects in π-stacking interactions. In this model, substituent effects are dominated by electrostatic interactions of the local dipoles associated with the substituents and the electric field of the other ring. The implications of the local nature of substituent effects on π-stacking interactions in larger systems are discussed, with examples given for complexes with carbon nanotubes and a small graphene model, as well as model stacked discotic systems. We also discuss related issues involving the interpretation of electrostatic potential (ESP) maps. Although ESP maps are widely used in discussions of noncovalent interactions, they are often misinterpreted. Next, we provide an alternative explanation for the origin of anion-π interactions involving substituted benzenes and N-heterocycles, and show that these interactions are well-described by simple models based solely on charge-dipole interactions. Finally, we summarize our recent work on the physical nature of substituent effects in XH-π interactions. Together, these results paint a more complete picture of noncovalent interactions involving aromatic rings and provide a firm conceptual foundation for the rational exploitation of these interactions in a myriad of chemical contexts.

Cu(i) and Ag(i) complexes of 7,10-bis-N-heterocycle-diazafluoranthenes: programmed molecular grids?

Reactions of 7,10-disubstituted diazafluoranthene derivatives with three different silver(i) salts AgX (X = [PF₆]⁻, [SbF₆]⁻, [CB₁₁HCl₁₁]⁻) and [Cu(CH₃CN)₄]PF₆ afforded complexes exhibiting five different motifs.

Magnetic refrigeration and slow magnetic relaxation in tetranuclear lanthanide cages (Ln = Gd, Dy) with in situ ligand transformation

Three tetranuclear lanthanide cages featuring either hemicubane (1 and 2) or distorted hemicubane (3) like cores are reported. Magnetic studies reveal significant magnetic entropy changes for complex 1 and a slow relaxation of magnetisation for 3.

Tuning the nuclearity of iron(iii) polynuclear clusters by using tetradentate Schiff-base ligands

Three novel octanuclear, hexanuclear and tetranuclear complexes of high-spin Fe(iii) ions were obtained by the reaction of the N,N′-bis-(1R-imidazol-4-ylmethylene)-ethane-1,2-diamine ligand (R = H, CH₃) and its derivatives with Fe(ClO₄)₃·6H₂O and KSCN.

Syntheses, supramolecular structures, magnetic and photochromic properties of six lanthanide complexes based on the 5-azotetrazolyl salicylic acid ligand

Six lanthanide complexes based on 5-azotetrazolyl salicylic acid were synthesized and their crystal structures, magnetic and photochromic properties were reported.

On the importance of anion-π interactions in the mechanism of sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase

Sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase (SQR) is a flavin-dependent enzyme that plays a physiological role in two important processes. First, it is responsible for sulfide detoxification by oxidizing sulfide ions (S(2-) and HS(-)) to elementary sulfur and the electrons are first transferred to flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), which in turn passes them to the quinone pool in the membrane. Second, in sulfidotrophic bacteria, SQRs play a key role in the sulfide-dependent respiration and anaerobic photosynthesis, deriving energy for their growth from reduced sulfur. Two mechanisms of action for SQR have been proposed: first, nucleophilic attack of a Cys residue on the C4 of FAD, and second, an alternate anionic radical mechanism by direct electron transfer from Cys to the isoalloxazine ring of FAD. Both mechanisms involve a common anionic intermediate that it is stabilized by a relevant anion-π interaction and its previous formation (from HS(-) and Cys-S-S-Cys) is also facilitated by reducing the transition-state barrier, owing to an interaction that involves the π system of FAD. By analyzing the X-ray structures of SQRs available in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) and using DFT calculations, we demonstrate the relevance of the anion-π interaction in the enzymatic mechanism.

Anion-π interactions in supramolecular architectures

The study of the noncovalent force between π-acidic aromatic systems and anions, referred to as the anion-π interaction, has recently emerged as a new branch of supramolecular chemistry. The anion-π contact is complementary to the cation-π interaction, a prominent noncovalent force involved in protein structure and enzyme function. Until recently, the scientific community had overlooked the anion-π interaction due to its ostensibly counterintuitive nature. Pioneering theoretical studies in 2002, however, established that anion-π interactions are energetically favorable (~20-70 kJ/mol) and prompted a flurry of reports in support of their existence. The interest in anion-π contacts was further fueled by the importance of anions in key chemical and biological processes and the involvement of π-rings in anion recognition and transport. Anion-π interactions hold great promise for the design of selective anion receptors, hosts or scaffolds, colorimetric sensors, and catalysts and may also affect biological functions. Currently, the area of anion-π research is highly topical in the scientific community and on a meteoric rise in the chemical literature. This Account highlights our leading findings in this burgeoning area. Our work has focused on comprehensive investigations of several unprecedented supramolecular systems, in which the anions and their close anion-π contacts are the driving elements of the final architectures. We surveyed several heterocyclic π-acidic aromatic systems amenable to anion-π contacts and explored the subtle interplay between ligand π-acidity, anion identity, and metal ions in mediating the ensuing self-assembled architectures. The reactions we performed between solvated first-row transition metal ions and the π-acidic ligands bptz (3,6-bis(2-pyridyl)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine) or bmtz (3,6-bis(2-pyrimidyl)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine) resulted in unprecedented metallacycles. Our investigations revealed that the identity of the encapsulated ion dictates the metallacycle nuclearity and close anion-π contacts are critical for the metallacycle stability. Our X-ray crystallographic, NMR spectroscopic, and mass spectrometric (MS) studies demonstrated that the tetrahedral ([BF4](-), [ClO4](-)) and octahedral ([SbF6](-), [AsF6](-), [PF6](-)) anions template discrete molecular squares and pentagons, respectively. The metal ions occupy the vertices, and bptz or bmtz moieties span the edges of the metallacycles. The encapsulated anions occupy the π-acidic cavities of the metallacycles and establish multiple close directional F/O···C(tetrazine) contacts with the edges. The observation of notable (19)F solid-state NMR chemical shifts reflects the short contacts of the encapsulated anions, findings that we corroborated by DFT calculations. The solution NMR data support the conclusion that bona fide metallacycle templation and interconversion between the metallacycles in solution occurs only in the presence of the appropriate anions. The NMR, MS, and CV data underscore the remarkable metallapentacycle stability despite the angle strain inherent in pentagons formed by octahedral metal ions. The low anion activation energies of encapsulation (ΔG(‡) ~ 50 kJ/mol) suggest that anion-π contacts assist the anion templation. We also studied reactions of Ag(I)X (X(-) = [PF6](-), [AsF6](-), [SbF6](-), [BF4](-)) with bptz or bppn (3,6-bis(2-pyridyl)-1,2-pyridazine) to assess the effect of the ligand π-acidity on the preferred structures. The X-ray data revealed that the higher π-acidity of the tetrazine ring in bptz leads to propeller-type products [Ag2(bptz)3](2+) exhibiting prominent short anion-π contacts. By contrast, the less π-acidic bppn preferentially favors grids [Ag4(bppn)4](4+) which exhibit maximized π-π interactions. Finally, we explored the reactions of the extended π-acidic heterocycle HAT(CN)6 (1,4,5,8,9,12-hexaazatriphenylene-hexacarbonitrile) with the Cl(-), Br(-), I(-) ions which lead to highly colored solutions/crystals. X-ray crystallographic studies of the HAT(CN)6/halide complexes revealed unprecedented multisite short peripheral charge-transfer and centroid anion-π contacts. In solution, the charge-transfer contacts were evidenced by electronic absorption, (13)C and halogen NMR, as well as MS data. The distinctly colored complex entities exhibit extraordinarily high association constants, which render them promising for anion-sensing receptor applications.