Strain and orientation modulated bandgaps and effective masses of phosphorene nanoribbons

Phosphorene: Fabrication, Properties, and Applications

Phosphorene, the single- or few-layer form of black phosphorus, was recently rediscovered as a two-dimensional layered material holding great promise for applications in electronics and optoelectronics. Research into its fundamental properties and device applications has since seen exponential growth. In this Perspective, we review recent progress in phosphorene research, touching upon topics on fabrication, properties, and applications; we also discuss challenges and future research directions. We highlight the intrinsically anisotropic electronic, transport, optoelectronic, thermoelectric, and mechanical properties of phosphorene resulting from its puckered structure in contrast to those of graphene and transition-metal dichalcogenides. The facile fabrication and novel properties of phosphorene have inspired design and demonstration of new nanodevices; however, further progress hinges on resolutions to technical obstructions like surface degradation effects and nonscalable fabrication techniques. We also briefly describe the latest developments of more sophisticated design concepts and implementation schemes that address some of the challenges in phosphorene research. It is expected that this fascinating material will continue to offer tremendous opportunities for research and development for the foreseeable future.

Electric-Field Tunable Band Offsets in Black Phosphorus and MoS2 van der Waals p-n Heterostructure

The structural and electronic properties of black phosphorus/MoS2 (BP/MoS2) van der Waals (vdW) heterostructure are investigated by first-principles calculations. It is demonstrated that the BP/MoS2 bilayer is a type-II p-n vdW heterostructure, and thus the lowest energy electron-hole pairs are spatially separated. The band gap of BP/MoS2 can be significantly modulated by external electric field, and a transition from semiconductor to metal is observed. It gets further support from the band edges of BP and MoS2 in BP/MoS2 bilayer, which show linear variations with E⊥. BP/MoS2 bilayer also exhibits modulation of its band offsets and band alignment by E⊥, resulting in different spatial distribution of the lowest energy electron-hole pairs. Our theoretical results may inspire much interest in experimental research of BP/MoS2 vdW heterostructures and would open a new avenue for application of the heterostructures in future nano- and optoelectronics.

Anisotropic thermal transport in phosphorene: effects of crystal orientation

As an intrinsic thermally anisotropic material, the thermal properties of phosphorene must vary with respect to the crystal chirality. Nevertheless, previous studies of heat transfer in phosphorene have been limited to the 0.0° (zigzag, ZZ) and 90.0° (armchair, AC) chiralities. In this study, we investigate the orientation-dependent thermal transport in phosphorene sheets with a complete set of crystal chirality ranging from 0.0° to 90.0° using the Boltzmann transport equation (BTE) associated with the first-principles calculations. It was found that in the phosphorene sheets, the intrinsic thermal conductivity is a smooth monotonic decreasing function of the crystal chirality, which exhibits sinusoidal behavior bounded by the two terminated values 48.9 (0.0°) and 27.8 (90.0°) W m(-1) K(-1). The optical modes have unusually large contributions to heat transfer, which account for almost 30% of the total thermal conductivity of phosphorene sheets. This is because the optical phonons have comparable group velocities and relaxation times to the acoustic phonons.

The structure and elastic properties of phosphorene edges

We investigated the edge atomic structures and elastic properties of defect-free phosphorene nanoribbons (PNRs). Density functional tight binding simulations were used to optimize two main edge configurations: armchair (AC) and zigzag (ZZ). It was found that the energy relaxation of PNRs leads to the noticeable changes in edge atomic configurations. The effective width of the edge region, which includes all the atoms involved in the edge relaxation, was found to contain approximately three atomic rows near the edge for both AC and ZZ PNRs. We further extracted the edge stress and modulus for the ZZ and AC edges. Both the AC and ZZ edge stresses of PNRs are positive, indicating tensile stress at the edges. In addition, both the AC and ZZ edge moduli are positive. However, the edge elastic modulus and edge stress of ZZ PNRs are about three times larger than those of AC PNRs. Furthermore, we showed that the tensile edge stresses along ZZ and AC edges are able to cause distortion in freestanding phosphorene nanoribbons. Our results highlight the importance of accounting for edge stresses in the design and fabrication of PNRs.

Electron-Transport Properties of Few-Layer Black Phosphorus

We perform the first-principles computational study of the effect of number of stacking layers and stacking style of the few-layer black phosphorus (BPs) on the electronic properties, including transport gap, current-voltage (i-v) relation, and differential conductance. Our computation is based on the nonequilibrium Green's function approach combined with density functional theory calculations. Specifically, we compute electron-transport properties of monolayer BP, bilayer BP, and trilayer BP as well as bilayer BPs with AB-, AA-, or AC-stacking. We find that the stacking number has greater influence on the transport gap than the stacking type. Conversely, the stacking type has greater influence on i-v curve and differential conductance than on the transport gap. This study offers useful guidance for determining the number of stacking layers and the stacking style of few-layer BP sheets in future experimental measurements and for potential applications in nanoelectronic devices.

Theoretical predictions on the electronic structure and charge carrier mobility in 2D phosphorus sheets

We have investigated the electronic structure and carrier mobility of four types of phosphorous monolayer sheet (α-P, β-P,γ-P and δ-P) using density functional theory combined with Boltzmann transport method and relaxation time approximation. It is shown that α-P, β-P and γ-P are indirect gap semiconductors, while δ-P is a direct one. All four sheets have ultrahigh carrier mobility and show anisotropy in-plane. The highest mobility value is ~3 × 10(5) cm(2)V(-1)s(-1), which is comparable to that of graphene. Because of the huge difference between the hole and electron mobilities, α-P, γ-P and δ-P sheets can be considered as n-type semiconductors, and β-P sheet can be considered as a p-type semiconductor. Our results suggest that phosphorous monolayer sheets can be considered as a new type of two dimensional materials for applications in optoelectronics and nanoelectronic devices.

Nine new phosphorene polymorphs with non-honeycomb structures: a much extended family

We predict a new class of monolayer phosphorus allotropes, namely, ε-P, ζ-P, η-P, and θ-P. Distinctly different from the monolayer α-P (black) and previously predicted β-P (Phys. Rev. Lett. 2014, 112, 176802), γ-P, and δ-P (Phys. Rev. Lett. 2014, 113, 046804) with buckled honeycomb lattice, the new allotropes are composed of P4 square or P5 pentagon units that favor tricoordination for P atoms. The new four polymorphs, together with five additional hybrid polymorphs, greatly enrich the phosphorene structures, and their stabilities are confirmed by first-principles calculations. In particular, the θ-P is shown to be equally stable as the α-P (black) and more stable than all previously reported phosphorene polymorphs. Prediction of nonvolatile ferroelastic switching and structural transformation among different polymorphs under strains points out their potential applications via strain engineering.

The renaissance of black phosphorus

One hundred years after its first successful synthesis in the bulk form in 1914, black phosphorus (black P) was recently rediscovered from the perspective of a 2D layered material, attracting tremendous interest from condensed matter physicists, chemists, semiconductor device engineers, and material scientists. Similar to graphite and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), black P has a layered structure but with a unique puckered single-layer geometry. Because the direct electronic band gap of thin film black P can be varied from 0.3 eV to around 2 eV, depending on its film thickness, and because of its high carrier mobility and anisotropic in-plane properties, black P is promising for novel applications in nanoelectronics and nanophotonics different from graphene and TMDs. Black P as a nanomaterial has already attracted much attention from researchers within the past year. Here, we offer our opinions on this emerging material with the goal of motivating and inspiring fellow researchers in the 2D materials community and the broad readership of PNAS to discuss and contribute to this exciting new field. We also give our perspectives on future 2D and thin film black P research directions, aiming to assist researchers coming from a variety of disciplines who are desirous of working in this exciting research field.

Compressive straining of bilayer phosphorene leads to extraordinary electron mobility at a new conduction band edge

By means of hybrid DFT calculations and the deformation potential approximation, we show that bilayer phosphorene under slight compression perpendicular to its surface exhibits extraordinary room temperature electron mobility of order 7 × 10(4) cm(2) V(-1) s(-1). This is approximately 2 orders of magnitude higher than is widely reported for ground state phosphorenes and is the result of the emergence of a new conduction band minimum that is decoupled from the in-plane acoustic phonons that dominate carrier scattering.

Unexpected magnetic semiconductor behavior in zigzag phosphorene nanoribbons driven by half-filled one dimensional band

Phosphorene, as a novel two-dimensional material, has attracted a great interest due to its novel electronic structure. The pursuit of controlled magnetism in Phosphorene in particular has been persisting goal in this area. In this paper, an antiferromagnetic insulating state has been found in the zigzag phosphorene nanoribbons (ZPNRs) from the comprehensive density functional theory calculations. Comparing with other one-dimensional systems, the magnetism in ZPNRs display several surprising characteristics: (i) the magnetic moments are antiparallel arranged at each zigzag edge; (ii) the magnetism is quite stable in energy (about 29 meV/magnetic-ion) and the band gap is big (about 0.7 eV); (iii) the electronic and magnetic properties is almost independent on the width of nanoribbons; (iv) a moderate compressive strain will induce a magnetic to nonmagnetic as well as semiconductor to metal transition. All of these phenomena arise naturally due to one unique mechanism, namely the electronic instability induced by the half-filled one-dimensional bands which cross the Fermi level at around π/2a. The unusual electronic and magnetic properties in ZPNRs endow them possible potential for the applications in nanoelectronic devices.

Small molecules make big differences: molecular doping effects on electronic and optical properties of phosphorene

Systematical computations on the density functional theory were performed to investigate the adsorption of three typical organic molecules, tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) and tetrathiafulvalene (TTF), on the surface of phosphorene monolayers and thicker layers. There exist considerable charge transfer and strong non-covalent interaction between these molecules and phosphorene. In particular, the band gap of phosphorene decreases dramatically due to the molecular modification and can be further tuned by applying an external electric field. Meanwhile, surface molecular modification has proven to be an effective way to enhance the light harvesting of phosphorene in different directions. Our results predict a flexible method toward modulating the electronic and optical properties of phosphorene and shed light on its experimental applications.

Elemental analogues of graphene: silicene, germanene, stanene, and phosphorene

The fascinating electronic and optoelectronic properties of free-standing graphene has led to the exploration of alternative two-dimensional materials that can be easily integrated with current generation of electronic technologies. In contrast to 2D oxide and dichalcogenides, elemental 2D analogues of graphene, which include monolayer silicon (silicene), are fast emerging as promising alternatives, with predictions of high degree of integration with existing technologies. This article reviews this emerging class of 2D elemental materials - silicene, germanene, stanene, and phosphorene--with emphasis on fundamental properties and synthesis techniques. The need for further investigations to establish controlled synthesis techniques and the viability of such elemental 2D materials is highlighted. Future prospects harnessing the ability to manipulate the electronic structure of these materials for nano- and opto-electronic applications are identified.

Contrastive band gap engineering of strained graphyne nanoribbons with armchair and zigzag edges

By using first-principles calculations, the band structures of graphyne nanoribbons with armchair (a-GNRs) and zigzag (z-GNRs) edges under various strains are investigated.

Semiconducting black phosphorus: synthesis, transport properties and electronic applications

Phosphorus is one of the most abundant elements preserved in earth, and it comprises a fraction of ∼0.1% of the earth crust.

A first-principles study on the magnetic properties of nonmetal atom doped phosphorene monolayers

Substitutional doping of C, O, Si, S and Se atoms can induce the magnetic moment in phosphorene monolayers.

Spin caloritronics of blue phosphorene nanoribbons

We report a first-principles study of the magnetic properties and spin caloritronics of zigzag-type blue phosphorene nanoribbons (zBPNRs).

Phosphorene as an anode material for Na-ion batteries: a first-principles study

We present a theoretical study on phosphorene as an anode material for Na-ion batteries.

Adsorption of metal adatoms on single-layer phosphorene

We present a first-principles study on the surface reactivity of single-layer phosphorene.

Variable electronic properties of lateral phosphorene–graphene heterostructures

Phosphorene and graphene have a tiny lattice mismatch along the armchair direction, which can result in an atomically sharp in-plane interface.

Tiling phosphorene

We present a scheme to categorize the structure of different layered phosphorene allotropes by mapping their nonplanar atomic structure onto a two-color 2D triangular tiling pattern. In the buckled structure of a phosphorene monolayer, we assign atoms in "top" positions to dark tiles and atoms in "bottom" positions to light tiles. Optimum sp3 bonding is maintained throughout the structure when each triangular tile is surrounded by the same number N of like-colored tiles, with 0≤N≤2. Our ab initio density functional calculations indicate that both the relative stability and electronic properties depend primarily on the structural index N. The proposed mapping approach may also be applied to phosphorene structures with nonhexagonal rings and 2D quasicrystals with no translational symmetry, which we predict to be nearly as stable as the hexagonal network.