Growth of highly fluorescent polyethylene glycol- and zwitterion-functionalized gold nanoclusters

Metal nanoclusters: novel probes for diagnostic and therapeutic applications

Metal nanoclusters, composed of several to a few hundred metal atoms, have received worldwide attention due to their extraordinary physical and chemical characteristics. Recently, great efforts have been devoted to the exploration of the potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications of metal nanoclusters. Here we focus on the recent advances and new horizons in this area, and introduce the rising progress on the use of metal nanoclusters for biological analysis, biological imaging, therapeutic applications, DNA assembly and logic gate construction, enzyme mimic catalysis, as well as thermometers and pH meters. Furthermore, the future challenges in the construction of biofunctional metal nanoclusters for diagnostic and therapeutic applications are also discussed. We expect that the rapidly growing interest in metal nanocluster-based theranostic applications will certainly not only fuel the excitement and stimulate research in this highly active field, but also inspire broader concerns across various disciplines.

Nanomaterial-based activatable imaging probes: from design to biological applications

Activatable imaging probes as alternatives to "always on" imaging probes have attracted more and more attention due to their improved sensitivity and specificity. They are commonly designed to amplify or boost imaging signals only in response to specific biomolecular recognition or interaction. Thus, the design strategies play a vital role in the fabrication of activatable imaging probes. In this review, we focus on the design mechanisms and biological applications of those nanomaterial-based activatable imaging probes reported in the past five years, benefitting greatly from the good development of nanotechnology. These probes not only include the most studied activatable fluorescence imaging probes, but also cover more activatable MR imaging probes based on nanoparticle contrast agents and activatable photoacoustic imaging probes, providing more bases for clinical translation.

Self-Assembled Gold Nanoclusters for Bright Fluorescence Imaging and Enhanced Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles combining enhanced cellular drug delivery with efficient fluorescence detection are important tools for the development of theranostic agents. Here, we demonstrate this concept by a simple, fast, and robust protocol of cationic polymer-mediated gold nanocluster (Au NCs) self-assembly into nanoparticles (NPs) of ca. 120 nm diameter. An extensive characterization of the monodisperse and positively charged NPs revealed pH-dependent swelling properties, strong fluorescence enhancement, and excellent colloidal and photostability in water, buffer, and culture medium. The versatility of the preparation is demonstrated by using different Au NC surface ligands and cationic polymers. Steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence measurements give insight into the aggregation-induced emission phenomenon (AIE) by tuning the Au NC interactions in the self-assembled nanoparticles using the pH-dependent swelling. In vitro studies in human monocytic cells indicate strongly enhanced uptake of the NPs compared to free Au NCs in endocytic compartments. The NPs keep their assembly structure with quite low cytotoxicity up to 500 μg Au/mL. Enhanced drug delivery is demonstrated by loading peptides or antibodies in the NPs using a one-pot synthesis. Fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry confirmed intracellular colocalization of the biomolecules and the NP carriers with a respective 1.7-fold and 6.5-fold enhanced cellular uptake of peptides and antibodies compared to the free biomolecules.

Gold Nanocluster and Quantum Dot Complex in Protein for Biofriendly White-Light-Emitting Material

We report the synthesis of a biofriendly highly luminescent white-light-emitting nanocomposite. The composite consisted of Au nanoclusters and ZnQ2 complex (on the surface of ZnS quantum dots) embedded in protein. The combination of red, green, and blue luminescence from clusters, complex, and protein, respectively, led to white light generation.

High-resolution separation of thiolate-protected gold clusters by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

This perspective summarizes our work on high-resolution separation of thiolate-protected gold clusters using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, new findings obtained by those separation, and future prospects for this field.

Functionalization of metal nanoclusters for biomedical applications

Metal nanoclusters (NCs) are emerging as a new class of functional nanomaterials in the area of biological sensing, labelling, imaging and therapy due to their unique physical and chemical properties, such as ultrasmall size, HOMO–LUMO transition, strong luminescence together with good photostability and biocompatibility.

A study into the role of surface capping on energy transfer in metal cluster-semiconductor nanocomposites

Metal cluster-semiconductor nanocomposite materials remain a frontier area of research for the development of optoelectronic, photovoltaic and light harvesting devices because metal nanoclusters and semiconductor QDs are promising candidates for photon harvesting. Here, we have designed well defined metal cluster-semiconductor nanostructures using different surface capped negatively charged Au25 nanoclusters (Au NCs) and positively charged cysteamine capped CdTe quantum dots using electrostatic interactions. The main focus of this article is to address the impact of surface capping agents on the photophysical properties of Au cluster-CdTe QD hybrid nanocomposites. Steady state and time resolved spectroscopic studies reveal that photoluminescence quenching, radiative and nonradiative rate, and energy transfer between Au nanoclusters and CdTe QDs have been influenced by the nature of the capping agent. We have calculated the energy transfer related parameters such as the overlap integral, distance between donor and acceptor, Förster distance, efficiency of energy transfer and rate of energy transfer from CdTe QDs to three different Au NCs. Photoluminescence quenching varies from 73% to 43% when changing the capping agents from bovine serum albumin (BSA) to glutathione (GSH). The efficiency of the energy transfer from CdTe QDs to BSA-capped Au NCs is found to be 83%, for Cys-capped Au NCs it was 46% and for GSH-capped Au NCs it was 35%. The efficiency depends on the number of Au clusters attached per QD. This reveals that the nature of capping ligands plays a crucial role in the energy transfer phenomena from CdTe QDs to Au NCs. Interesting findings reveal that the efficient energy transfer in metal cluster-semiconductor nanocomposites may open up new possibilities in designing artificial light harvesting systems for future applications.

Cancer Cell Imaging Using in Situ Generated Gold Nanoclusters

In situ generated fluorescent gold nanoclusters (Au-NCs) are used for bio-imaging of three human cancer cells, namely, lung (A549), breast (MCF7), and colon (HCT116), by confocal microscopy. The amount of Au-NCs in non-cancer cells (WI38 and MCF10A) is 20-40 times less than those in the corresponding cancer cells. The presence of a larger amount of glutathione (GSH) capped Au-NCs in the cancer cell is ascribed to a higher glutathione level in cancer cells. The Au-NCs exhibit fluorescence maxima at 490-530 nm inside the cancer cells. The fluorescence maxima and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry suggest that the fluorescent Au-NCs consist of GSH capped clusters with a core structure (Au8-13). Time-resolved confocal microscopy indicates a nanosecond (1-3 ns) lifetime of the Au-NCs inside the cells. This rules out the formation of aggregated Au-thiolate complexes, which typically exhibit microsecond (≈1000 ns) lifetimes. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) in live cells indicates that the size of the Au-NCs is ≈1-2 nm. For in situ generation, we used a conjugate consisting of a room-temperature ionic liquid (RTIL, [pmim][Br]) and HAuCl4. Cytotoxicity studies indicate that the conjugate, [pmim][AuCl4], is non-toxic for both cancer and non-cancer cells.

Multivalent Glycosylation of Fluorescent Gold Nanoclusters Promotes Increased Human Dendritic Cell Targeting via Multiple Endocytic Pathways

We report the synthesis and characterization of gold nanoclusters (Au NCs) stabilized by a mixture of zwitterionic and multivalent mannose ligands. Characterization of this carbohydrated nanosystem confirms its small size (∼2 nm), intense red-NIR fluorescence, relatively high affinity to lectin (ConA), and stability in physiological media. Cell studies performed using human-monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) show that Au NC uptake efficiency is greatly enhanced by the presence of surface carbohydrate (>250% compared to noncarbohydrated Au NCs), allowing their detection in cells by fluorescence following incubation with concentrations as low as 1 μg mL(-1). Investigation using electron microscopy and pharmacological inhibitors indicates that Au NC uptake is mediated by multiple endocytic pathways involving the engulfment of Au NCs into endosomes and partial transport to lysosomes. Results show that clathrin- and F-actin-dependent pathways play major roles in Au NC uptake by DCs, regardless of whether or not they are coated with carbohydrates. In contrast, a specific C-lectin inhibitor induces a 60% decrease in DC particle uptake only for the carbohydrate-coated Au NCs. This study demonstrates that the combination of ultrasmall gold NCs and functionalization with multivalent mannose ligands results in greatly enhanced human DC targeting, presumably due to increased diffusion and target cell binding, respectively.

A microwave-facilitated rapid synthesis of gold nanoclusters with tunable optical properties for sensing ions and fluorescent ink

Luminescent glutathione-capped gold nanoclusters (GS-AuNCs) with tunable emissions have been efficiently synthesized by a solution-based microwave method.

Fluorescence Imaging Assisted Photodynamic Therapy Using Photosensitizer-Linked Gold Quantum Clusters

Fluorescence imaging assisted photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a viable two-in-one clinical tool for cancer treatment and follow-up. While the surface plasmon effect of gold nanorods and nanoparticles has been effective for cancer therapy, their emission properties when compared to gold nanoclusters are weak for fluorescence imaging guided PDT. In order to address the above issues, we have synthesized a near-infrared-emitting gold quantum cluster capped with lipoic acid (L-AuC with (Au)18(L)14) based nanoplatform with excellent tumor reduction property by incorporating a tumor-targeting agent (folic acid) and a photosensitizer (protoporphyrin IX), for selective PDT. The synthesized quantum cluster based photosensitizer PFL-AuC showed 80% triplet quantum yield when compared to that of the photosensitizer alone (63%). PFL-AuC having 60 μg (0.136 mM) of protoporphyrin IX was sufficient to kill 50% of the tumor cell population. Effective destruction of tumor cells was evident from the histopathology and fluorescence imaging, which confirm the in vivo PDT efficacy of PFL-AuC.

Acylsulfonamide-Functionalized Zwitterionic Gold Nanoparticles for Enhanced Cellular Uptake at Tumor pH

A nanoparticle design featuring pH-responsive alkoxyphenyl acylsulfonamide ligands is reported herein. As a result of ligand structure, this nanoparticle is neutral at pH 7.4, becoming positively charged at tumor pH (<6.5). The particle uptake and cytotoxicity increase over this pH range. This pH-controlled uptake and toxicity makes this particle a promising tool for tumor selective therapy.

(99m)Tc radiolabelling of Fe3O4-Au core-shell and Au-Fe3O4 dumbbell-like nanoparticles

The development of nanoparticle-based dual-modality probes for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is increasingly growing in importance. One of the most commonly used radionuclides for clinical SPECT imaging is (99m)Tc and the labelling of Fe3O4 nanoparticles with (99m)Tc was shown to be a successful strategy to obtain dual-modality imaging agents. In this work, we focus on gold containing magnetic nanomaterials. The radiolabelling of magnetic Fe3O4-Au core-shell and Fe3O4-Au dumbbell-like nanoparticles with the [(99m)Tc(CO)3](+) fragment is described. The key elements for this (99m)Tc labelling approach are novel coating ligands, consisting of an anchor for the Au surface, a polyethylene glycol linker and a strong chelator for the [(99m)Tc(CO)3](+) moiety.

Preparation of multi-coloured different sized fluorescent gold clusters from blue to NIR, structural analysis of the blue emitting Au7 cluster, and cell-imaging by the NIR gold cluster

Blue, green, orange-red, red and NIR emitting gold quantum clusters have been prepared in aqueous media by using a bioactive peptide glutathione (reduced) at physiological pH. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analyses show that the core structure sizes of the five different gold clusters are Au7 (blue), Au16 (green), Au19 (orange-red), Au21 (red) and Au22 (NIR). The photo-stability and pH-stability of these quantum clusters have been measured, and these are photo-stable against continuous UV irradiation for a few hours. They also exhibit moderate to good pH-stability within the pH range of 5-12.5. A computational study reveals the organisation of gold atoms in the thiolate-protected blue quantum cluster and its several structural parameters, including the mode of interaction of ligand molecules with Au atoms in the Au7 cluster. Interestingly, it has been found that NIR emitting gold quantum cluster can easily be internalized into the adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cell line (A549 cell line). Moreover, a MTT assay indicates that our NIR emitting gold quantum cluster show very low cytotoxicy to A549 cancer cells.

Synthesis of ovalbumin-stabilized highly fluorescent gold nanoclusters and their application as an Hg2+ sensor

Highly fluorescent Au nanoclusters were synthesized using ovalbumin (OVA) as a template. The application of the nanoclusters for the detection of mercury ions was also achieved.

Controlling the synthesis and assembly of fluorescent Au/Ag alloy nanoclusters

Self-assembly of water-soluble fluorescent thiolated Au/Ag alloy NCs into 1D nanostructures in water is demonstrated. Fluorescent Au/Ag alloy NCs with high stability were synthesized through galvanic replacement, starting from nonemissive and unstable AgNC precursors. Then a facile ultrasound method was used to induce a thiolate-driven self-assembly process.

One-pot preparation of cationic charged Pt nanoparticles by the autocatalytic hydrolysis of acetylthiocholine

Autocatalytic synthesis of cationic charged platinum nanoparticles.

In vivo accurate target bio-marking of tumors through in situ biosynthesized fluorescent zinc nanoclusters

This article demonstrates that when cultured with micromolar zinc gluconate solutions, cancerous cells readily biosynthesized in situ biocompatible zinc nanoclusters allowing their fluorescence bio-imaging.

Strategies for interfacing inorganic nanocrystals with biological systems based on polymer-coating

A representative set of nanocrystals made of semiconductors, Au and iron oxide, surface-capped with polymer ligands presenting various metal-coordinating groups.

Facilitated preparation of bioconjugatable zwitterionic quantum dots using dual-lipid encapsulation

Zwitterionic quantum dots prepared through incorporated zwitterionic ligands on quantum dot surfaces, are being paid significant attention in biomedical applications because of their excellent colloidal stability across a wide pH and ionic strength range, antifouling surface, good biocompatibility, etc. In this work, we report a dual-lipid encapsulation approach to prepare bioconjugatable zwitterionic quantum dots using amidosulfobetaine-16 lipids, dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine lipids with functional head groups, and CuInS2/ZnS quantum dots in a tetrahydrofuran/methanol/water solvent system with sonication. Amidosulfobetaine-16 is a zwitterionic lipid and dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine, with its functional head, provides bioconjugation capability. Under sonication, tetrahydrofuran/methanol containing amidosulfobetaine-16, dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine, and hydrophobic quantum dots are dispersed in water to form droplets. Highly water-soluble tetrahydrofuran/methanol in droplets is further displaced by water, which induces the lipid self-assembling on hydrophobic surface of quantum dots and thus forms water soluble zwitterionic quantum dots. The prepared zwitterionic quantum dots maintain colloidal stability in aqueous solutions with high salinity and over a wide pH range. They are also able to be conjugated with biomolecules for bioassay with minimal nonspecific binding.

Zwitteration: coating surfaces with zwitterionic functionality to reduce nonspecific adsorption

Coating surfaces with thin or thick films of zwitterionic material is an effective way to reduce or eliminate nonspecific adsorption to the solid/liquid interface. This review tracks the various approaches to zwitteration, such as monolayer assemblies and polymeric brush coatings, on micro- to macroscopic surfaces. A critical summary of the mechanisms responsible for antifouling shows how zwitterions are ideally suited to this task.

Ligand effect on the size, valence state and red/near infrared photoluminescence of bidentate thiol gold nanoclusters

Synthesis and characterization of gold nanoclusters (Au NCs) stabilized by a zwitterion ligand (Zw) at different Au : Zw ratios are demonstrated. Au NCs exhibit photoluminescence (PL) emission which is tunable from the near infrared (805 nm) to the red spectral window (640 nm) and strongly influenced by the ligand shell size. Optical and chemical investigations suggest the presence of gold polymeric species and large nanoclusters for a molar ratio of Au : Zw = 1 : 1. For 1 : 5 < Au : Zw < 1 : 1, Zw induces etching of the large clusters and the formation of a monolayer of the bidentate ligands on the Au NCs (cluster size ∼7 to 10 kDa) accompanied by red PL emission at λ = 710 nm. A second organic layer starts to form for larger Zw fractions (Au : Zw < 1 : 5) as a result of electrostatic and covalent interactions of the zwitterion leading to an enhancement and a blue-shift of the PL emission. The effect of temperature and pH on the optical properties of gold clusters is strongly dependent on the ligand shell and demonstrates the importance of defining gold nanoclusters as supramolecular assemblies with a complex environment.

A simple model for understanding the fluorescence behavior of Au25 nanoclusters

In this work, we synthesized Au25 nanoclusters protected by 2-(naphthalen-2-yl)ethanethiolate. Our experiments revealed that the luminescence of this nanocluster consists of two bands, namely, band I centered at 740 nm and band II centered at 680 nm. Compared with 2-phenylethanethiolate protected Au25 nanoclusters, this new nanocluster has a much higher QY (quantum yield) value (6.5 times higher). Fluorescence lifetime measurements showed multiple components, i.e. 0.15 ns, ∼20 ns and ∼150 ns. With an increase in the electropositivity of the nanocluster, the fluorescence intensity of the nanocluster exhibits a significant enhancement. Since the 2-(naphthalen-2-yl)ethanethiolate protected Au25 nanocluster shares the same Au13/Au12 core-shell structure as the 2-phenylethanethiolate protected nanocluster, the band II fluorescence implies that the surface ligands play a major role in the origin of the fluorescence.

Study of binding interactions between MPT63 protein and Au nanocluster

Binding between AuNC andMycobacterium tuberculosisderived protein.

Ultra-small fluorescent inorganic nanoparticles for bioimaging

The recent advances of ultra-small fluorescence inorganic nanoparticles including quantum dots, metal nanoclusters, carbon and graphene dots, up-conversion nanocrystals, and silicon nanoparticles have been comprehensively reviewed.

Blue light emitting gold nanoparticles functionalized with non-thiolate thermosensitive polymer ligand: optical properties, assemblies and application

The thermosensitive copolymer ligand was employed as scaffold to construct the blue light emitting gold nanoparticles. These nanoparticles show interesting assemblies, aggregation-induced emission enhancement and selective sensing for Hg²⁺.

Light-induced modification of silver nanoparticles with functional polymers

Light coating: Ag–polymer core–shell nanoparticles were prepared using photoenol-based light-induced ligation.

Understanding the self-assembly of proteins onto gold nanoparticles and quantum dots driven by metal-histidine coordination

Coupling of polyhistidine-appended biomolecules to inorganic nanocrystals driven by metal-affinity interactions is a greatly promising strategy to form hybrid bioconjugates. It is simple to implement and can take advantage of the fact that polyhistidine-appended proteins and peptides are routinely prepared using well established molecular engineering techniques. A few groups have shown its effectiveness for coupling proteins onto Zn- or Cd-rich semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). Expanding this conjugation scheme to other metal-rich nanoparticles (NPs) such as AuNPs would be of great interest to researchers actively seeking effective means for interfacing nanostructured materials with biology. In this report, we investigated the metal-affinity driven self-assembly between AuNPs and two engineered proteins, a His7-appended maltose binding protein (MBP-His) and a fluorescent His6-terminated mCherry protein. In particular, we investigated the influence of the capping ligand affinity to the nanoparticle surface, its density, and its lateral extension on the AuNP-protein self-assembly. Affinity gel chromatography was used to test the AuNP-MPB-His7 self-assembly, while NP-to-mCherry-His6 binding was evaluated using fluorescence measurements. We also assessed the kinetics of the self-assembly between AuNPs and proteins in solution, using time-dependent changes in the energy transfer quenching of mCherry fluorescent proteins as they immobilize onto the AuNP surface. This allowed determination of the dissociation rate constant, Kd(-1) ∼ 1-5 nM. Furthermore, a close comparison of the protein self-assembly onto AuNPs or QDs provided additional insights into which parameters control the interactions between imidazoles and metal ions in these systems.

The effects of composition and surface chemistry on the toxicity of quantum dots

Recently, researchers have paid much attention to the toxicity of QDs because of their rapidly increasing application in biomedicine. Recent investigations have indicated that QDs have influences on biological systems at the cellular, subcellular, and protein levels during the processes of imaging and therapeutic applications. The toxicity of QDs is related to their composition, surface functionality, size, shape, and charge, etc. among which composition and surface modification are two important elements. This feature article mainly concentrates on the latest developments in reducing QD toxicity by manipulating their composition and surface modification. Besides the cadmium-based QDs, the assessment of toxicity in vitro and in vivo for other QDs such as carbon dots, graphene QDs, silicon QDs, Ag₂Se QDs, CuInS₂@ZnS, InP QDs, hybrid QDs of carbon and CdSe@ZnS, etc., is generalized. Each kind of QD has its own advantages. Cadmium-based QDs have broad UV excitation, narrow emission and bright photoluminescence (PL), while cadmium-free ones present low toxicity. In fact, a lot of investigations show that the toxicity of QDs is dose dependent, whatever the composition. Consequently, surface modification becomes very important to reduce toxicity and simultaneously impart biocompatibility, stability, and specificity to QDs. Therefore, the functionalization of QDs with inorganic shells (e.g., CdSe@ZnS, CdSe@SiO₂), polymers, bio- or natural macromolecules is summarized. Future research work should concentrate on preparing novel QDs with appropriate surface modification and investigating the long-term influence of QDs on absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination in vivo, especially for cadmium-free QDs such as carbon-based QDs, Ag₂Se QDs, CuInS₂@ZnS QDs and InP QDs, etc.