Actin assembly at membranes controlled by ARF6

Dynamin at actin tails

Dynamin, the product of the shibire gene of Drosophila, is a GTPase critically required for endocytosis. Some studies have suggested a functional link between dynamin and the actin cytoskeleton. This link is of special interest, because there is evidence implicating actin dynamics in endocytosis. Here we show that endogenous dynamin 2, as well as green fluorescence protein fusion proteins of both dynamin 1 and 2, is present in actin comets generated by Listeria or by type I PIP kinase (PIPK) overexpression. In PIPK-induced tails, dynamin is further enriched at the interface between the tails and the moving organelles. Dynamin mutants harboring mutations in the GTPase domain inhibited nucleation of actin tails induced by PIPK and moderately reduced their speed. Although dynamin localization to the tails required its proline-rich domain, expression of a dynamin mutant lacking this domain also diminished tail formation. In addition, this mutant disrupted a membrane-associated actin scaffold (podosome rosette) previously shown to include dynamin. These findings suggest that dynamin is part of a protein network that controls nucleation of actin from membranes. At endocytic sites, dynamin may couple the fission reaction to the polymerization of an actin pool that functions in the separation of the endocytic vesicles from the plasma membrane.

PYK2 as a mediator of endothelin-1/G alpha 11 signaling to GLUT4 glucose transporters

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) signaling through G alpha(q/11) stimulates translocation of intracellular GLUT4 glucose transporters to the plasma membrane of 3T3-L1 adipocytes by an unknown mechanism that requires protein tyrosine phosphorylation and ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) but is independent of phosphatidylinositol 3 (PI3)-kinase. In contrast, insulin action on this process requires PI3-kinase but not ARF6. Here we report the identification of two proteins selectively tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to ET-1 but not insulin: the Ca(2+)-activated tyrosine kinase PYK2 and its physiological substrate, the adhesion scaffold protein paxillin. Endogenous paxillin as well as expressed Myc-tagged PYK2 or a Myc-tagged kinase-deficient PYK2 protein were acutely directed to F-actin-rich adhesion sites from the adipocyte cytoplasm in response to ET-1 but not insulin. CADTK-related non-kinase (CRNK) is a dominant negative form of PYK2 containing the C-terminal portion of the protein, which binds paxillin but lacks the PYK2 autophosphorylation site (Tyr(402)). CRNK expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes inhibited ET-1-mediated F-actin polymerization and translocation of Myc-tagged GLUT4-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) to the plasma membrane without disrupting insulin action on these processes. These data reveal the tyrosine kinase PYK2 as a required signaling element in the regulation of GLUT4 recycling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes by ET-1, whereas insulin signaling is directed through a different pathway.

Phosphoinositides, key molecules for regulation of actin cytoskeletal organization and membrane traffic from the plasma membrane

Phosphoinositide plays a critical role not only in generating second messengers, such as inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and diacylglycerol, but also in modulating a variety of cellular functions including cytoskeletal organization and membrane trafficking. Many inositol lipid kinases and phosphatases appear to regulate the concentration of a variety of phosphoinositides in a specific area, thereby inducing spatial and temporal changes in their availability. For example, local concentration changes in phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P(2)) in response to extracellular stimuli cause the reorganization of actin filaments and a change in cell shape. PI(4,5)P(2) uncaps the barbed end of actin filaments and increases actin nucleation by modulating a variety of actin regulatory proteins, leading to de novo actin polymerization. PI(4,5)P(2) also plays a key role in membrane trafficking processes. In endocytosis, PI(4,5)P(2) targets clathrin-associated proteins to endocytic vesicles, leading to clathrin-coated pit formation. On the contrary, PI(4,5)P(2) must be dephosphorylated when they shed clathrin coats to fuse endosome. Thus, through regulating actin cytoskeleton organization and membrane trafficking, phosphoinositides play crucial roles in a variety of cell functions such as growth, polarity, movement, and pattern formation.

CD2AP and p130Cas localize to different F-actin structures in podocytes

Mice lacking the 80-kDa CD2-associated protein (CD2AP) develop progressive renal failure that starts soon after birth with proteinuria and foot process effacement by unknown mechanisms. CD2AP has been identified and cloned independently by virtue of its interaction with the T cell protein CD2 and with the docking protein p130Cas. In the present study we examined the localization of CD2AP and p130Cas in the mouse glomerulus and in cultured podocytes. In glomeruli, CD2AP and p130Cas immunofluorescence were observed in podocytes, where they colocalized with F-actin in foot processes. In addition, p130Cas was strongly expressed in mesangial cells. Immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated that CD2AP was present in podocyte foot processes without a prevailing localization. In cultured podocytes, p130Cas was enriched at sites of focal adhesions, where it colocalized like vinculin with F-actin at stress fiber ends. In contrast, CD2AP colocalized with F-actin at the leading edge of lamellipodia and in small spots, which were unevenly distributed in the cytoplasm. The spot-shaped F-actin structures were also stained by antibodies against the actin nucleation Arp2/3 complex and cortactin, both contributing to dynamic actin assembly. Moreover, CD2AP spots in cultured podocytes were in close spatial association with actinin-4, but not actinin-1. Our results suggest that CD2AP and p130Cas, which both colocalize with F-actin in podocytes in situ, possess different functions. Whereas p130Cas is found in focal adhesions, CD2AP seems to be involved in the regulation of highly dynamic F-actin structures in podocyte foot processes.

Cortactin: coupling membrane dynamics to cortical actin assembly

Exposure of cells to a variety of external signals causes rapid changes in plasma membrane morphology. Plasma membrane dynamics, including membrane ruffle and microspike formation, fusion or fission of intracellular vesicles, and the spatial organization of transmembrane proteins, is directly controlled by the dynamic reorganization of the underlying actin cytoskeleton. Two members of the Rho family of small GTPases, Cdc42 and Rac, have been well established as mediators of extracellular signaling events that impact cortical actin organization. Actin-based signaling through Cdc42 and Rac ultimately results in activation of the actin-related protein (Arp) 2/3 complex, which promotes the formation of branched actin networks. In addition, the activity of both receptor and non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases along with numerous actin binding proteins works in concert with Arp2/3-mediated actin polymerization in regulating the formation of dynamic cortical actin-associated structures. In this review we discuss the structure and role of the cortical actin binding protein cortactin in Rho GTPase and tyrosine kinase signaling events, with the emphasis on the roles cortactin plays in tyrosine phosphorylation-based signal transduction, regulating cortical actin assembly, transmembrane receptor organization and membrane dynamics. We also consider how aberrant regulation of cortactin levels contributes to tumor cell invasion and metastasis.

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate and Arf6-regulated membrane traffic

ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) 6 regulates the movement of membrane between the plasma membrane (PM) and a nonclathrin-derived endosomal compartment and activates phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP 5-kinase), an enzyme that generates phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). Here, we show that PIP2 visualized by expressing a fusion protein of the pleckstrin homology domain from PLCdelta and green fluorescent protein (PH-GFP), colocalized with Arf6 at the PM and on tubular endosomal structures. Activation of Arf6 by expression of its exchange factor EFA6 stimulated protrusion formation, the uptake of PM into macropinosomes enriched in PIP2, and recycling of this membrane back to the PM. By contrast, expression of Arf6 Q67L, a GTP hydrolysis-resistant mutant, induced the formation of PIP2-positive actin-coated vacuoles that were unable to recycle membrane back to the PM. PM proteins, such as beta1-integrin, plakoglobin, and major histocompatibility complex class I, that normally traffic through the Arf6 endosomal compartment became trapped in this vacuolar compartment. Overexpression of human PIP 5-kinase alpha mimicked the effects seen with Arf6 Q67L. These results demonstrate that PIP 5-kinase activity and PIP2 turnover controlled by activation and inactivation of Arf6 is critical for trafficking through the Arf6 PM-endosomal recycling pathway.

PI(4,5)P(2) regulation of surface membrane traffic

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PI[4,5]P(2)) has emerged as an important signaling molecule in the membrane for regulating vesicle exo- and endocytosis and the accompanying actin cytoskeletal rearrangements. Localization studies with GFP-tagged binding domains and antibodies provide new views of the non-uniform, dynamic distribution of PI(4,5)P(2) in membranes and its organization in raft-like domains. The targeting of phosphoinositide kinases by GTPases can coordinate the reactions of membrane fusion and fission with cytoskeletal assembly, providing a basis for membrane movement.

Cortactin promotes and stabilizes Arp2/3-induced actin filament network formation

Cortactin is a c-src substrate associated with sites of dynamic actin assembly at the leading edge of migrating cells. We previously showed that cortactin binds to Arp2/3 complex, the essential molecular machine for nucleating actin filament assembly. In this study, we demonstrate that cortactin activates Arp2/3 complex based on direct visualization of filament networks and pyrene actin assays. Strikingly, cortactin potently inhibited the debranching of filament networks. When cortactin was added in combination with the active VCA fragment of N-WASp, they synergistically enhanced Arp2/3-induced actin filament branching. The N-terminal acidic and F-actin binding domains of cortactin were both necessary to activate Arp2/3 complex. These results support a model in which cortactin modulates actin filament dendritic nucleation by two mechanisms, (1) direct activation of Arp2/3 complex and (2) stabilization of newly generated filament branch points. By these mechanisms, cortactin may promote the formation and stabilization of the actin network that drives protrusion at the leading edge of migrating cells.

Actin filament nucleation by endosomes, lysosomes and secretory vesicles

Intracellular pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes and vaccinia virus propel themselves through the cytoplasm of mammalian cells by nucleating actin filaments. Recently, actin assembly has also been shown to power the movement of intracellular vesicles, and this may be a mechanism underlying endomembrane movement in a variety of physiological contexts. Surprisingly, class I myosins have been found to play important roles in both actin nucleation and endomembrane trafficking.