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Abstract
Most tissues are populated by tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM cells), which are adapted to their niche and appear to be indispensable for local protection against pathogens. Here we show that human white matter-derived brain CD8+ T cells can be subsetted into CD103-CD69+ and CD103+CD69+ T cells both with a phenotypic and transcription factor profile consistent with TRM cells. Specifically, CD103 expression in brain CD8+ T cells correlates with reduced expression of differentiation markers, increased expression of tissue-homing chemokine receptors, intermediate and low expression of the transcription factors T-bet and eomes, increased expression of PD-1 and CTLA-4, and low expression of cytolytic enzymes with preserved polyfunctionality upon activation. Brain CD4+ T cells also display TRM cell-associated markers but have low CD103 expression. We conclude that the human brain is surveilled by TRM cells, providing protection against neurotropic virus reactivation, whilst being under tight control of key immune checkpoint molecules.
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102
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Flórido M, Muflihah H, Lin LCW, Xia Y, Sierro F, Palendira M, Feng CG, Bertolino P, Stambas J, Triccas JA, Britton WJ. Pulmonary immunization with a recombinant influenza A virus vaccine induces lung-resident CD4 + memory T cells that are associated with protection against tuberculosis. Mucosal Immunol 2018; 11:1743-1752. [PMID: 30115996 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-018-0065-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The lung is the primary site of infection with the major human pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Effective vaccines against M. tuberculosis must stimulate memory T cells to provide early protection in the lung. Recently, tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) were found to be phenotypically and transcriptional distinct from circulating memory T cells. Here, we identified M. tuberculosis-specific CD4+ T cells induced by recombinant influenza A viruses (rIAV) vaccines expressing M. tuberculosis peptides that persisted in the lung parenchyma with the phenotypic and transcriptional characteristics of TRMs. To determine if these rIAV-induced CD4+ TRM were protective independent of circulating memory T cells, mice previously immunized with the rIAV vaccine were treated with the sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulator, FTY720, prior to and during the first 17 days of M. tuberculosis challenge. This markedly reduced circulating T cells, but had no effect on the frequency of M. tuberculosis-specific CD4+ TRMs in the lung parenchyma or their cytokine response to infection. Importantly, mice immunized with the rIAV vaccine were protected against M. tuberculosis infection even when circulating T cells were profoundly depleted by the treatment. Therefore, pulmonary immunization with the rIAV vaccine stimulates lung-resident CD4+ memory T cells that are associated with early protection against tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Flórido
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia
| | - Heni Muflihah
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia
| | - Leon C W Lin
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia
| | - Yingju Xia
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Frederic Sierro
- Liver Immunology Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia.,Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Mainthan Palendira
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Carl G Feng
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Patrick Bertolino
- Liver Immunology Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia.,AW Morrow Gastroenterology and Liver Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - John Stambas
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - James A Triccas
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Warwick J Britton
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Newtown, NSW, Australia. .,Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. .,Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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103
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Schreiner D, King CG. CD4+ Memory T Cells at Home in the Tissue: Mechanisms for Health and Disease. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2394. [PMID: 30386342 PMCID: PMC6198086 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last 10 years, a population of clonally expanded T cells that take up permanent residence in non-lymphoid tissues has been identified. The localization of these tissue resident memory (TRM) cells allows them to rapidly respond at the site of antigen exposure, making them an attractive therapeutic target for various immune interventions. Although most studies have focused on understanding the biology underlying CD8 TRMs, CD4 T cells actually far outnumber CD8 T cells in barrier tissues such as lung and skin. Depending on the immune context, CD4 TRM can contribute to immune protection, pathology, or tissue remodeling. Although the ability of CD4 T cells to differentiate into heterogeneous effector and memory subsets has been well-established, how this heterogeneity manifests within the TRM compartment and within different tissues is just beginning to be elucidated. In this review we will discuss our current understanding of how CD4 TRMs are generated and maintained as well as a potential role for CD4 TRM plasticity in mediating the balance between beneficial and pathogenic immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Schreiner
- Immune Cell Biology Lab, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Carolyn G King
- Immune Cell Biology Lab, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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104
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Takamura S. Niches for the Long-Term Maintenance of Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1214. [PMID: 29904388 PMCID: PMC5990602 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM cells) are a population of immune cells that reside in the lymphoid and non-lymphoid organs without recirculation through the blood. These important cells occupy and utilize unique anatomical and physiological niches that are distinct from those for other memory T cell populations, such as central memory T cells in the secondary lymphoid organs and effector memory T cells that circulate through the tissues. CD8+ TRM cells typically localize in the epithelial layers of barrier tissues where they are optimally positioned to act as sentinels to trigger antigen-specific protection against reinfection. CD4+ TRM cells typically localize below the epithelial layers, such as below the basement membrane, and cluster in lymphoid structures designed to optimize interactions with antigen-presenting cells upon reinfection. A key feature of TRM populations is their ability to be maintained in barrier tissues for prolonged periods of time. For example, skin CD8+ TRM cells displace epidermal niches originally occupied by γδ T cells, thereby enabling their stable persistence for years. It is also clear that the long-term maintenance of TRM cells in different microenvironments is dependent on multiple tissue-specific survival cues, although the specific details are poorly understood. However, not all TRM persist over the long term. Recently, we identified a new spatial niche for the maintenance of CD8+ TRM cells in the lung, which is created at the site of tissue regeneration after injury [termed repair-associated memory depots (RAMD)]. The short-lived nature of RAMD potentially explains the short lifespans of CD8+ TRM cells in this particular tissue. Clearly, a better understanding of the niche-dependent maintenance of TRM cells will be important for the development of vaccines designed to promote barrier immunity. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the properties and nature of tissue-specific niches that maintain TRM cells in different tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiki Takamura
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan
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105
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Amsen D, van Gisbergen KPJM, Hombrink P, van Lier RAW. Tissue-resident memory T cells at the center of immunity to solid tumors. Nat Immunol 2018; 19:538-546. [PMID: 29777219 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-018-0114-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Immune responses in tissues are constrained by the physiological properties of the tissue involved. Tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM cells) are a recently discovered lineage of T cells specialized for life and function within tissues. Emerging evidence has shown that TRM cells have a special role in the control of solid tumors. A high frequency of TRM cells in tumors correlates with favorable disease progression in patients with cancer, and studies of mice have shown that TRM cells are necessary for optimal immunological control of solid tumors. Here we describe what defines TRM cells as a separate lineage and how these cells are generated. Furthermore, we discuss the properties that allow TRM cells to operate in normal and transformed tissues, as well as implications for the treatment of patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derk Amsen
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Klaas P J M van Gisbergen
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pleun Hombrink
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rene A W van Lier
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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106
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Clemens EB, van de Sandt C, Wong SS, Wakim LM, Valkenburg SA. Harnessing the Power of T Cells: The Promising Hope for a Universal Influenza Vaccine. Vaccines (Basel) 2018; 6:vaccines6020018. [PMID: 29587436 PMCID: PMC6027237 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines6020018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Next-generation vaccines that utilize T cells could potentially overcome the limitations of current influenza vaccines that rely on antibodies to provide narrow subtype-specific protection and are prone to antigenic mismatch with circulating strains. Evidence from animal models shows that T cells can provide heterosubtypic protection and are crucial for immune control of influenza virus infections. This has provided hope for the design of a universal vaccine able to prime against diverse influenza virus strains and subtypes. However, multiple hurdles exist for the realisation of a universal T cell vaccine. Overall primary concerns are: extrapolating human clinical studies, seeding durable effective T cell resident memory (Trm), population human leucocyte antigen (HLA) coverage, and the potential for T cell-mediated immune escape. Further comprehensive human clinical data is needed during natural infection to validate the protective role T cells play during infection in the absence of antibodies. Furthermore, fundamental questions still exist regarding the site, longevity and duration, quantity, and phenotype of T cells needed for optimal protection. Standardised experimental methods, and eventually simplified commercial assays, to assess peripheral influenza-specific T cell responses are needed for larger-scale clinical studies of T cells as a correlate of protection against influenza infection. The design and implementation of a T cell-inducing vaccine will require a consensus on the level of protection acceptable in the community, which may not provide sterilizing immunity but could protect the individual from severe disease, reduce the length of infection, and potentially reduce transmission in the community. Therefore, increasing the standard of care potentially offered by T cell vaccines should be considered in the context of pandemic preparedness and zoonotic infections, and in combination with improved antibody vaccine targeting methods. Current pandemic vaccine preparedness measures and ongoing clinical trials under-utilise T cell-inducing vaccines, reflecting the myriad questions that remain about how, when, where, and which T cells are needed to fight influenza virus infection. This review aims to bring together basic fundamentals of T cell biology with human clinical data, which need to be considered for the implementation of a universal vaccine against influenza that harnesses the power of T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bridie Clemens
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
| | - Carolien van de Sandt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
| | - Sook San Wong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
| | - Linda M Wakim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
| | - Sophie A Valkenburg
- HKU Pasteur Research Pole, School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China.
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