101
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Oncolytic viruses-immunotherapeutics on the rise. J Mol Med (Berl) 2016; 94:979-91. [PMID: 27492706 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-016-1453-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The oncolytic virus (OV) field has entered an exciting period in its evolution in which our basic understanding of viral biology and anti-cancer potential are being actively translated into viable therapeutic options for aggressive malignancies. OVs are naturally occurring or engineered viruses that are able to exploit cancer-specific changes in cellular signaling to specifically target cancers and their microenvironment. The direct cytolytic effect of OVs on cancer cells is known to release antigens, which can begin a cascade of events that results in the induction of anti-cancer adaptive immunity. This response is now regarded as the most critical mechanism of OV action and harnessing it can lead to the elimination of distant micrometastases as well as provide long-term anti-cancer immune surveillance. In this review, we highlight the development of the OV field, why OVs are gaining an increasingly elevated standing as members of the cancer immunotherapy armamentarium, and finally, ongoing clinical studies that are aimed at translating unique OV therapies into approved therapies for aggressive cancers.
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102
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Hou W, Sampath P, Rojas JJ, Thorne SH. Oncolytic Virus-Mediated Targeting of PGE2 in the Tumor Alters the Immune Status and Sensitizes Established and Resistant Tumors to Immunotherapy. Cancer Cell 2016; 30:108-119. [PMID: 27374223 PMCID: PMC4962335 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapies are highly promising cancer treatments, but understanding the factors mediating their resistance remains critical. Successes in randomized clinical testing have supported the growing appreciation that oncolytic virotherapies primarily act as immunotherapies. Here we identified prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the tumor as a key mediator of resistance to immunotherapies, including oncolytic vaccinia virotherapy. Elevated levels of PGE2 coupled to suppressive chemokine profiles and high levels of granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells resulted in loss of immunotherapeutic potential. Viral vectors engineered to target PGE2 were capable of overcoming localized immunosuppression leading to profound changes in the tumor's immune status. This allowed the viral vectors to raise robust anti-tumor adaptive immune responses and sensitized established and previously resistant tumors to immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhou Hou
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Padma Sampath
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Juan J Rojas
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Steve H Thorne
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Immunology, G17a, Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, 5117 Center Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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103
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Zamarin D, Pesonen S. Replication-Competent Viruses as Cancer Immunotherapeutics: Emerging Clinical Data. Hum Gene Ther 2016; 26:538-49. [PMID: 26176173 PMCID: PMC4968310 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2015.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Replication-competent (oncolytic) viruses (OV) as cancer immunotherapeutics have gained an increasing level of attention over the last few years while the clinical evidence of virus-mediated antitumor immune responses is still anecdotal. Multiple clinical studies are currently ongoing and more immunomonitoring results are expected within the next five years. All viruses can be recognized by the immune system and are therefore potential candidates for immune therapeutics. However, each virus activates innate immune system by using different combination of recognition receptors/pathways which leads to qualitatively different adaptive immune responses. This review summarizes immunological findings in cancer patients following treatment with replication-competent viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitriy Zamarin
- 1 Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center , New York, New York
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104
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Downs-Canner S, Guo ZS, Ravindranathan R, Breitbach CJ, O'Malley ME, Jones HL, Moon A, McCart JA, Shuai Y, Zeh HJ, Bartlett DL. Phase 1 Study of Intravenous Oncolytic Poxvirus (vvDD) in Patients With Advanced Solid Cancers. Mol Ther 2016; 24:1492-501. [PMID: 27203445 PMCID: PMC5023393 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2016.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We have conducted a phase 1 study of intravenous vvDD, a Western Reserve strain oncolytic vaccinia virus, on 11 patients with standard treatment-refractory advanced colorectal or other solid cancers. The primary endpoints were maximum tolerated dose and associated toxicity while secondary endpoints were pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, immune responses, and antitumor activity. No dose-limiting toxicities and treatment related severe adverse events were observed. The most common adverse events were grades 1/2 flu-like symptoms. Virus genomes were detectable in the blood 15–30 minutes after virus administration in a dose-dependent manner. There was evidence of a prolonged virus replication in tumor tissues in two patients, but no evidence of virus replication in non-tumor tissues, except a healed injury site and an oral thrush. Over 100-fold of anti-viral antibodies were induced in patients' sera. A strong induction of inflammatory and Th1, but not Th2 cytokines, suggested a potent Th1-mediated immunity against the virus and possibly the cancer. One patient showed a mixed response on PET-CT with resolution of some liver metastases, and another patient with cutaneous melanoma demonstrated clinical regression of some lesions. Given the confirmed safety, further trials evaluating intravenous vvDD in combination with therapeutic transgenes, immune checkpoint blockade or complement inhibitors, are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Downs-Canner
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Zong Sheng Guo
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Roshni Ravindranathan
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Mark E O'Malley
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Heather L Jones
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Anne Moon
- SillaJen Biotherapeutics Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Judith Andrea McCart
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yongli Shuai
- Biostatistics Facility, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Herbert J Zeh
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - David L Bartlett
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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105
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Seymour LW, Fisher KD. Oncolytic viruses: finally delivering. Br J Cancer 2016; 114:357-61. [PMID: 26766734 PMCID: PMC4815777 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2015.481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 11/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses can be found at the confluence of virology, genetic engineering and pharmacology where versatile platforms for molecularly targeted anticancer agents can be designed and optimised. Oncolytic viruses offer several important advantages over traditional approaches, including the following. (1) Amplification of the active agent (infectious virus particles) within the tumour. This avoids unnecessary exposure to normal tissues experienced during delivery of traditional stoichiometric chemotherapy and maximises the therapeutic index. (2) The active cell-killing mechanisms, often independent of programmed death mechanisms, should decrease the emergence of acquired drug resistance. (3) Lytic death of cancer cells provides a pro-inflammatory microenvironment and the potential for induction of an anticancer vaccine response. (4) Tumour-selective expression and secretion of encoded anticancer biologics, providing a new realm of potent and cost-effective-targeted therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerry D Fisher
- Department Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
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106
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Pol J, Buqué A, Aranda F, Bloy N, Cremer I, Eggermont A, Erbs P, Fucikova J, Galon J, Limacher JM, Preville X, Sautès-Fridman C, Spisek R, Zitvogel L, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. Trial Watch-Oncolytic viruses and cancer therapy. Oncoimmunology 2016; 5:e1117740. [PMID: 27057469 PMCID: PMC4801444 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2015.1117740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy relies on the administration of non-pathogenic viral strains that selectively infect and kill malignant cells while favoring the elicitation of a therapeutically relevant tumor-targeting immune response. During the past few years, great efforts have been dedicated to the development of oncolytic viruses with improved specificity and potency. Such an intense wave of investigation has culminated this year in the regulatory approval by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of a genetically engineered oncolytic viral strain for use in melanoma patients. Here, we summarize recent preclinical and clinical advances in oncolytic virotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Pol
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Center de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Aitziber Buqué
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Center de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Fernando Aranda
- Group of Immune receptors of the Innate and Adaptive System, Institut d’Investigacions Biomédiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Norma Bloy
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Center de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Isabelle Cremer
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Equipe 13, Center de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Jitka Fucikova
- Sotio, Prague, Czech Republic
- Dept. of Immunology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Motol, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jérôme Galon
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Laboratory of Integrative Cancer Immunology, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Catherine Sautès-Fridman
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Equipe 13, Center de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
| | - Radek Spisek
- Sotio, Prague, Czech Republic
- Dept. of Immunology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Motol, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Laurence Zitvogel
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- INSERM, U1015, CICBT507, Villejuif, France
| | - Guido Kroemer
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Center de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
- Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Center de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
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107
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Ruf B, Lauer UM. Assessment of current virotherapeutic application schemes: "hit hard and early" versus "killing softly"? Mol Ther Oncolytics 2015; 2:15018. [PMID: 27119110 PMCID: PMC4782955 DOI: 10.1038/mto.2015.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Revised: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past two decades, a considerable amount of oncolytic vector families has entered numerous clinical trials. However, to this date, the field has not yet been able to come to a common understanding regarding the best possible ways to administer oncolytic viruses to cancer patients. This is mainly due to the fact that so far clinical trials being designed for head-to-head comparisons (such as using two different virotherapeutics originating from two distinct virus families being applied via identical routes in the same types of cancer) are still missing. Hence, there is no consent (i) on the best route of virotherapeutics administration (e.g., systemic versus intratumoral), (ii) on the virus dosages to be applied, (iii) on dosing intervals, and (iv) on the numbers of repetitive courses of virus administration. As the detailed comparison of clinical virotherapy trial regimens is time-consuming and complex, we here present an overview of current state-of-the-art virotherapeutic application schemes. Notably, our comprehensive assessment culminates in raising two rough classifications of virotherapeutic strategies, i.e., "hit hard and early" versus "killing softly". In order to find out which one of these two gross alternatives might be most successful for each and every tumor entity, we here suggest the implementation of phase 1/2 studies, which primarily aim at a repetitive sampling and analysis of tumor samples in cancer patients treated with oncolytic viruses reading out (i) virus-specific, (ii) tumor-specific as well as (iii) immunotherapeutic parameters. On this basis, a rational design of significantly improved virotherapeutic application schemes should be possible in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Ruf
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Ulrich M Lauer
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
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108
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Liu Z, Ravindranathan R, Li J, Kalinski P, Guo ZS, Bartlett DL. CXCL11-Armed oncolytic poxvirus elicits potent antitumor immunity and shows enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Oncoimmunology 2015; 5:e1091554. [PMID: 27141352 PMCID: PMC4839379 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2015.1091554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We have armed a tumor-selective oncolytic vaccinia virus (vvDD) with the chemokine (CK) CXCL11, in order to enhance its ability to attract CXCR3+ antitumor CTLs and possibly NK cells to the tumor microenvironment (TME) and improve its therapeutic efficacy. As expected, vvDD-CXCL11 attracted high numbers of tumor-specific T cells to the TME in a murine AB12 mesothelioma model. Intratumoral virus-directed CXCL11 expression enhanced local numbers of CD8+ CTLs and levels of granzyme B, while reducing expression of several suppressive molecules, TGF-β, COX2, and CCL22 in the TME. Unexpectedly, we observed that vvDD-CXCL11, but not parental vvDD, induced a systemic increase in tumor-specific IFNγ-producing CD8+ T cells in the spleen and other lymph organs, indicating the induction of systemic antitumor immunity. This effect was associated with enhanced therapeutic efficacy and a survival benefit in tumor-bearing mice treated with vvDD-CXCL11, mediated by CD8+ T cells and IFNγ, but not CD4+ T cells. These results demonstrate that intratumoral expression of CXCL11, in addition to promoting local trafficking of T cells and to a lesser extent NK cells, has a novel function as a factor eliciting systemic immunity to cancer-associated antigens. Our data provide a rationale for expressing CXCL11 to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of oncolytic viruses (OVs) and cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuqiang Liu
- The University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Roshni Ravindranathan
- The University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jun Li
- The University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Pawel Kalinski
- The University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Z Sheng Guo
- The University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - David L Bartlett
- The University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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109
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Replicating poxviruses for human cancer therapy. J Microbiol 2015; 53:209-18. [PMID: 25845536 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-015-5041-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Naturally occurring oncolytic viruses are live, replication-proficient viruses that specifically infect human cancer cells while sparing normal cell counterparts. Since the eradication of smallpox in the 1970s with the aid of vaccinia viruses, the vaccinia viruses and other genera of poxviruses have shown various degrees of safety and efficacy in pre-clinical or clinical application for human anti-cancer therapeutics. Furthermore, we have recently discovered that cellular tumor suppressor genes are important in determining poxviral oncolytic tropism. Since carcinogenesis is a multi-step process involving accumulation of both oncogene and tumor suppressor gene abnormalities, it is interesting that poxvirus can exploit abnormal cellular tumor suppressor signaling for its oncolytic specificity and efficacy. Many tumor suppressor genes such as p53, ATM, and RB are known to play important roles in genomic fidelity/maintenance. Thus, tumor suppressor gene abnormality could affect host genomic integrity and likely disrupt intact antiviral networks due to accumulation of genetic defects, which would in turn result in oncolytic virus susceptibility. This review outlines the characteristics of oncolytic poxvirus strains, including vaccinia, myxoma, and squirrelpox virus, recent progress in elucidating the molecular connection between oncogene/tumor suppressor gene abnormalities and poxviral oncolytic tropism, and the associated preclinical/clinical implications. I would also like to propose future directions in the utility of poxviruses for oncolytic virotherapy.
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