Structure and physical map of 64 variable segments in the 3'0.8-megabase region of the human immunoglobulin heavy-chain locus

Molecular Analysis of Polyreactive Monoclonal Antibodies from Rheumatic Carditis: Human Anti-N-Acetylglucosamine/Anti-Myosin Antibody V Region Genes

Anti-myosin Abs are associated with inflammatory heart diseases such as rheumatic carditis and myocarditis. In this study, human cross-reactive anti-streptococcal/anti-myosin mAbs 1.C8, 1.H9, 5.G3, and 3.B6, produced from peripheral blood lymphocytes of patients with rheumatic carditis, and mAb 10.2.5, produced from a tonsil, were characterized, and the nucleotide sequences of their VH and VL genes were analyzed. Human mAbs 1.C8, 1.H9, 10.2.5, and 3.B6 reacted with human cardiac myosin while mAb 5.G3 did not. The mAbs were strongly reactive with N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine, the dominant epitope of the group A streptococcal carbohydrate. mAb 1.H9 was moderately cytotoxic to rat heart cells in vitro in the presence of complement. The anti-myosin mAbs from rheumatic carditis were found to react with specific peptides from the light meromyosin region of the human cardiac myosin molecule. Anti-streptococcal/anti-myosin mAbs from normal individuals reacted with distinctly different light meromyosin peptides. The mAbs were encoded by VH3 gene segments V3-8, V3-23, and V3-30 and by the VH4 gene segment V4-59. The variable region genes encoding the anti-streptococcal/anti-myosin repertoire were heterogeneous and exhibited little evidence of Ag-driven somatic mutation.

Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A Induces Survival of VH3-Expressing Human B Cells by Binding to the VH Region with Low Affinity

Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SE) are bacterial superantigens that bind to MHC class II molecules and to the Vβ-chain of the TCR, and subsequently activate T cells expressing specific Vβ regions. In this study, we have studied the effects of SEA on human B cell activation, and specifically the capacity of SEA to function as a B cell superantigen in vitro. We show herein that SEA failed to induce B cell proliferation and differentiation in the absence of T cells. However, SEA induced survival of B cells uniquely expressing VH3-containing IgM, independently of light chain utilization. The sequences of VH3 IgM gene products were determined and found to include a number of members of the VH3 family with a variety of different D and JH gene segments. Analysis of the sequences of VH3 gene products revealed possible sites in framework region 1 and/or framework region 3 that could be involved in SEA-mediated activation of VH3-expressing B cells. Binding studies showed that SEA interacts with the VH3 domain of Ig with low, but detectable affinity. These results indicate that SEA functions as a B cell superantigen by interacting with VH3 gene segments of Ig.

Human anticardiolipin monoclonal autoantibodies cause placental necrosis and fetal loss in BALB/c mice

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the structure, specificity, and in vivo pathogenetic potential of 2 human anticardiolipin (aCL) monoclonal antibodies (MAb).

METHODS

Human aCL IgG MAb were generated from hybridized Epstein-Barr virus-induced B cell lines from a healthy subject (MAb 519) and from a patient with primary antiphospholipid syndrome (MAb 516). Studies of antigen-binding specificity and analysis of Ig V-gene mutations were carried out. The MAb were independently injected into mated female BALB/c mice, and their effect on pregnancy outcome was compared with that of MAb 57, a highly mutated and antigen-selected human IgG1lambda rabies virus antibody.

RESULTS

Both MAb 519 and MAb 516 utilized minimally mutated V(H)DJ(H) and VkappaJkappa gene segments and bound cardiolipin and other anionic phospholipids in the absence of beta2-glycoprotein I (beta2-GPI). The mice injected with aCL MAb displayed a significantly higher rate of fetal resorption and a significant reduction in fetal and placental weight as compared with those injected with MAb 57. These findings were accompanied by a finding of placental human IgG deposition and necrosis in the aCL MAb-treated animals.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate that human aCL IgG that are beta2-GPI independent can induce pathology.

VH usage and somatic hypermutation in peripheral blood B cells of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA)

The human antibody repertoire has been demonstrated to have a marked V-gene-dependent bias that is conserved between individuals. In RA patients, certain heavy chain V genes (VH) have been found to be preferentially used for encoding autoantibodies. To determine if such preferential use of VH genes in autoantibodies is associated with a general distortion of the V gene repertoire in RA patients, the VH composition of peripheral blood B cells was analysed among four RA patients and four age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Usage of individual VH genes (eight VH3 and three VH4 genes tested by hybridization with a set of gene-specific oligonucleotide probes) was highly biased among RA patients, but no evidence of a distortion in the bias was observed compared with healthy controls. However, the occurrence of somatic mutations in these VH genes (estimated by differential hybridization with motif-specific oligonucleotide probes targeted to CDR and FR of the tested genes, and by DNA sequence analysis) was strikingly different between patients and healthy subjects. The number of VH3 rearrangements that had accumulated somatic mutations and the number of mutations per rearrangement were significantly elevated in three of the four RA patients. A slight but not significant elevation in mutations among rearranged VH4 genes was also observed in these patients. These data suggest that although usage of individual VH genes among peripheral blood B cells is not affected by the disease, the autoimmune process may involve a significant fraction of the B cell compartment.

Characterization of anti-mouse Fc gamma RII single-chain Fv fragments derived from human phage display libraries

BACKGROUND

Few antibodies are available to study the function of the Fc gamma RII murine immunoglobulin receptor. Human phage display libraries represent a potential source of single-chain Fv (sFv) to facilitate the study of the Fc gamma RII murine immunoglobulin receptor.

OBJECTIVES

To isolate human sFv specific for mouse Fc gamma RII.

STUDY DESIGN

Two human phage display libraries were selected for reactivity to mouse Fc gamma RII. Those human anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv that were derived from the libraries were characterized with respect to kinetics, cellular binding, epitope specificity and amino acid sequence.

RESULTS

Nine anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv molecules were isolated from two human phage display libraries (Marks et al., J Mol Biol 1991;222:581-597; Sheets et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, in press). Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis revealed that the human anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv had off-rates ranging from 10(-2) to 10(-3) s-1, with KD values calculated to range between 10(-7) and 10(-9) M. The binding of the FITC-labeled human anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv to mouse peritoneal neutrophils was not detected by flow cytometry, due to the rapid off-rates of these monomeric proteins. However, when the human anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv were coated on yellow-green latex particles, all of the human sFv were found to specifically bind to mouse peritoneal neutrophils. Deglycosylation of mouse Fc gamma RII did not diminish the binding of these sFv, suggesting that the sFv molecules recognize a polypeptide epitope on murine Fc gamma RII. In contrast, denaturation of mouse Fc gamma RII dramatically reduced the binding of the human sFv, suggesting that the epitopes are conformational. Sequence analysis of the human anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv revealed a high degree of structural similarity among the nine sFv. The DP73 VH gene segment was utilized by four of the nine sFv, while seven of the nine sFv contained the DPL16 V lambda gene segment. The sequence similarities between these sFv suggested that several of the human sFv may recognize a common epitope on mouse Fc gamma RII. Epitope mapping studies demonstrated that eight of the nine human anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv recognized overlapping epitopes. All of these human anti-mouse Fc gamma RII sFv competed with the 2.4G2 rat monoclonal anti-mouse Fc gamma RII/III antibody for binding with mouse Fc gamma RII, suggesting that the targeted epitopes reside in or near the Fc binding pocket of mouse Fc gamma RII.

CONCLUSIONS

The availability of novel sFv recognizing mouse Fc gamma RII will facilitate the study of receptor triggering events. Such sFv may prove useful to engage murine Fc gamma RII for targeted cytotoxicity or immunization strategies.

Somatic mutation in autoantibody-associated VH genes of circulating IgM+IgD+ B cells

Naive B cells expressing IgM and IgD on their surface have no or little somatic mutations in V genes. We have demonstrated that the human IgM+IgD+B cell clone (0-81), which expresses nephritogenic idiotypes, produces IgM anti-DNA antibodies which show monospecificity to DNA. Using a DNA probe which specifically links to the VH gene of antibody 0-81, we identified the counterpart germ-line V gene of 0-81, V3-7, which appears to be used by pathogenic autoantibodies in humans. Clone 0-81, which may belong to naive B cells in terms of cell phenotype, uses a somatically mutated V3-7 gene. We further studied DNA sequences of V3-7 genes in circulating IgM+IgD+B cells from normal subjects and patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The results revealed that rearranged V3-7 genes in IgM+IgD+B cells from patients with SLE contained somatically mutated sequences at significantly increased frequencies. These data indicate an abnormal maturation of B cells in autoimmune states that may be associated with an escape of self-reactive B cells from the elimination process in the germinal center.

Structural determinants in the sequences of immunoglobulin variable domain

To determine the general relation between the sequence and structure of variable domains of immunoglobulins we have carried out an analysis of their atomic structures, some 5300 different expressed sequences and the human germline gene segments. Variable domains are formed by two beta-sheets, packed face to face, and the inter-strand turns. Comparison of the different known structures shows that they have a core of 76 residues which has the same main-chain conformation in all structures. This common core contains almost all of the beta-sheet structure and three inter-strand turns. The regions that differ in conformation are the three hypervariable regions, three other inter-strand turns and a few adjacent residues. The 5300 expressed sequences currently known for variable domains were examined to determine the residues that occur at the 76 sites. Ignoring site conservations that occur for functional reasons, there are eight sites that have the same residue in almost all sequences; 12 that have one of a small group of very similar residues, and 52 where the chemical character of the residues is strongly conserved but not their volume. The role of residues at each site in the core was determined from the examination of their accessible surface areas, contacts, packing and buried side-chain hydrogen bonds. The most strongly conserved sites form the "deep" structure of the domain at the centre of the interface between the beta-sheets. It includes eight invariant sites and 11 sites that have one of a set of very similar residues. Around the deep structure there are buried hydrophobic residues that, in different variable domains, can differ greatly in volume. These differences in volume are accommodated by conformational changes in turn regions that are outside the common core. On the surface nearly all residues not involved in function or turn conformations strongly conserve hydrophilic or neutral residues. The implications of these results for the general relations between the sequence and structure of proteins are discussed.

Mutation Analysis of the Rearranged Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain Genes of Marginal Zone Cell Lymphomas Indicates an Origin From Different Marginal Zone B Lymphocyte Subsets

Marginal zone cell lymphoma is a recently described entity among the non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. It likely originates from the marginal zone B cells in the spleen and equivalent cells in the lymph node and extranodal tissues. Recent evidence indicates that marginal zone B cells are functionally heterogeneous and may differ with respect to the pattern of somatic hypermutation in their Ig variable genes. To test whether marginal zone lymphomas may originate from different subsets of marginal zone B cells, we performed a sequence and mutation analysis of the rearranged Ig heavy chain (IgH) variable genes (Vh) of a series of 14 cases of marginal zone lymphoma, occurring in the spleen (4), the lymph node (4), the stomach (2), the orbit (2), the tongue (1), and the skin (1). Our data show that marginal zone cell lymphomas preferentially rearrange the Vh4, Vh3, and Vh1 family genes, without preference for any particular Vh gene. Somatic mutations are present in 13 cases; one case of marginal zone cell lymphoma of the skin showed a germline configuration of the rearranged Vh gene. Mutation analysis shows evidence of antigen selection in three cases of marginal zone cell lymphoma, one of the spleen, stomach, and orbit, respectively. No evidence of antigen selection was present in the other cases. These data indicate that marginal zone cell lymphomas may arise from different subsets of marginal zone B cells. In addition, lymphomagenesis may not be triggered by antigen in all cases of marginal zone cell lymphoma.

Somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin variable region genes: focus on follicular lymphoma and multiple myeloma

Analysis of the rearranged immunoglobulin variable region gene hypermutation has provided important information concerning the clonal history and ontogenetic origin of various B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders. Under the selective pressure of antigen, mutational events in immunoglobulin genes will fine tune survival of B-cell clones bearing immunoglobulin with high affinity for antigen. Our studies aimed at analyzing neoplastic disorders originating from germinal and post-germinal center B-cells: follicular lymphoma and multiple myeloma, respectively. Despite the already acknowledged evidence for a selectable distribution of mutations within the clonal immunoglobulin variable heavy chain genes, very little is known about the contribution of light chains in the process of antigen selection. In follicular lymphoma, a more limited pattern of somatic mutation with less evidence of antigen selection was observed in variable kappa light chain genes (40%) than in their partner heavy chain genes (80%). In myeloma, hypermutation of variable light chain genes, with a distribution suggestive of antigen selection, was frequently observed. Based on these data and recent reports it appears that the light chain expressed by the clonogenic myeloma B-cells plays a pivotal role in the antigen selection process. Additionally, abortive kappa light chain variable region genes in lambda-expressing myelomas carried a significant number of somatic mutations indicating that the cell of origin is open to the hypermutation machinery at that particular developmental stage irrespective of antigen selection.

Insight into the origin and clonal history of B-cell tumors as revealed by analysis of immunoglobulin variable region genes

Recombination of VH, DH and JH genes is a unique first step in normal B-cell development. Subsequent differentiation to a mature plasma cell is accompanied by further events in the Ig genes, including VL-JL joining, somatic hypermutation and isotype switching. Chromosomal changes leading to B-cell tumors can occur at many points in this sequence, and may be partly a consequence of the genetic mobility and mutability permitted in order to generate a diverse antibody repertoire. V genes of neoplastic B cells may reflect the point of maturation reached by the B cell of origin, prior to transformation. Analysis of tumors therefore provides useful information on V-gene patterns in normal B cells, and may add another dimension to classification of B-cell tumors. Transformation may also preserve cell populations normally destined to die by apoptosis. Tumor cells arrested in the site where somatic hypermutation and isotype switch are occurring can still be subject to these processes, and could be influenced by persisting antigen. However, mutation is silenced at the point of exit to the periphery, leading to fixed mutational patterns in tumors of mature B cells. V-gene analysis provides an invaluable tool for understanding the genesis of neoplastic change. It also has a clear clinical relevance in tracking tumor cells, measuring residual disease, and finally in offering the opportunity of developing vaccines for treatment.

Mutation Analysis of the Rearranged Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain Genes of Marginal Zone Cell Lymphomas Indicates an Origin From Different Marginal Zone B Lymphocyte Subsets

Marginal zone cell lymphoma is a recently described entity among the non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. It likely originates from the marginal zone B cells in the spleen and equivalent cells in the lymph node and extranodal tissues. Recent evidence indicates that marginal zone B cells are functionally heterogeneous and may differ with respect to the pattern of somatic hypermutation in their Ig variable genes. To test whether marginal zone lymphomas may originate from different subsets of marginal zone B cells, we performed a sequence and mutation analysis of the rearranged Ig heavy chain (IgH) variable genes (Vh) of a series of 14 cases of marginal zone lymphoma, occurring in the spleen (4), the lymph node (4), the stomach (2), the orbit (2), the tongue (1), and the skin (1). Our data show that marginal zone cell lymphomas preferentially rearrange the Vh4, Vh3, and Vh1 family genes, without preference for any particular Vh gene. Somatic mutations are present in 13 cases; one case of marginal zone cell lymphoma of the skin showed a germline configuration of the rearranged Vh gene. Mutation analysis shows evidence of antigen selection in three cases of marginal zone cell lymphoma, one of the spleen, stomach, and orbit, respectively. No evidence of antigen selection was present in the other cases. These data indicate that marginal zone cell lymphomas may arise from different subsets of marginal zone B cells. In addition, lymphomagenesis may not be triggered by antigen in all cases of marginal zone cell lymphoma.

Somatic hypermutation in autoimmune thyroid disease

Autoimmune thyroid disease is one of the most common autoimmune diseases. There is typically patient antibody (Ab) reactivity to one or more of the antigens thyroglobulin (Tg), thyroid peroxidase (TPO) and the thyroid simulating hormone receptor (TSHr). With the advent of combinatorial library technology, there has been an enormous increase in the number of sequences from Ab to Tg and TPO. The repertoire of both Tg and TPO Ab is restricted and indicates the importance of somatic hypermutation in the development of the high affinity Ab response. However, there are still too few sequences to determine patterns in which the mutation occurs, which residues are introduced during substitution and how individual substitutions affect the affinity of the Ab. Ab to the TSHr are of far greater pathological significance than those to Tg and TPO, but the current repertoire of Ab to the TSHr has yet to include the high affinity IgG Ab characteristic of patient serum Ab. Instructive analysis of the role of somatic hypermutation in the development of TSHr Ab therefore still awaits the isolation of the pathologically active repertoire. Despite this, the Ab response in thyroid autoimmunity remains one of the best characterised of human autoimmune diseases.

Frequent occurrence of deletions and duplications during somatic hypermutation: implications for oncogene translocations and heavy chain disease

Human naive and germinal center (GC) B cells were sorted by flow cytometry and rearranged VH region genes were amplified and sequenced from single cells. Whereas no deletions or insertions were found in naive B cells, approximately 4% of in-frame and >40% of out-of-frame rearrangements of GC B cells harbored deletions and/or insertions of variable length. The pattern of deletions/insertions and their restriction to mutated V genes strongly suggests that they result from somatic hypermutation. Deletions and insertions account for approximately 6% of somatic mutations introduced into rearranged VH region genes of GC B cells. These deletions/insertions seem to be the main cause for the generation of heavy chain disease proteins. Furthermore, it appears that several types of oncogene translocations (like c-myc translocations in Burkitt's lymphoma) occur as a byproduct of somatic hypermutation within the GC-and not during V(D)J recombination in the bone marrow as previously thought.

VH-mediated mechanisms in normal and neoplastic B cell development

Lymphomagenesis is viewed as a multistep process involving many independent transforming events. From several lines of investigation, it is speculated that in many cases, the early transforming events take place at a very early stage of B cell development. The focus of our laboratory is to understand the physiologic processes that ensure the development of normal B cells. It follows then that when one such process at an early stage of development is aberrant, the B cell will be prone to transformation events and dysregulated expansion.

Conformational correction mechanisms aiding antigen recognition by a humanized antibody

The crystal structure of the complex between hen egg lysozyme and the Fv fragment of a humanized antilysozyme antibody was determined to 2.7-A resolution. The structure of the antigen combining site in the complex is nearly identical to that of the complexed form of the parent mouse antibody, D1.3. In contrast, the combining sites of the unliganded mouse and humanized antilysozymes show moderate conformational differences. This disparity suggests that a conformational readjustment process linked to antigen binding reverses adverse conformations in the complementarity determining regions that had been introduced by engineering these segments next to human framework regions in the humanized antibody.

Structure, Diversity, and Repertoire of VH Families in the Mexican Axolotl

The Mexican axolotl VH segments associated with the Igh Cμ and Cυ isotypes were isolated from anchored PCR libraries prepared from spleen cell cDNA. The eight new VH segments found bring the number of VH families in the axolotl to 11. Each VH had the canonical structural features of vertebrate VH segments, including residues important for the correct folding of the Ig domain. The distribution of ser AGC/T (AGY) and TCN codons in axolotl VH genes was biased toward AGY in complementarity-determining region-1 (CDR1) and TCN in framework region-1 (FR1); there were no ser residues in the FR2 region. Thus, the axolotl CDR1 region is enriched in DNA sequences forming potential hypermutation hot spots and is flanked by DNA sequences more resistant to point mutation. There was no significant bias toward AGY in CDR2. Southern blotting using family-specific VH probes showed restriction fragments from 1 (VH9) to 11–19 (VH2), and the total number of VH genes was 44 to 70, depending on the restriction endonuclease used. The VH segments were not randomly used by the Hμ and Hυ chains; VH1, VH6, and VH11 were underutilized; and the majority of the VH segments belonged to the VH7, VH8, and VH9 families. Most of the nine JH segments seemed to be randomly used, except JH6 and JH9, which were found only once in 79 clones.

Lack of Intraclonal Diversification in Ig Heavy and Light Chain V Region Genes Expressed by CD5+IgM+ Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia B Cells: A Multiple Time Point Analysis

To analyze the modalities of clonal expansion of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells, we sequenced at multiple time points the V(D)J genes expressed by CD5+IgM+CLL B cells in three patients. All three V(D)J gene sequences were found to be point mutated. The mutation frequency in the Ig VH (3.96 × 10−2 and 2.41 × 10−2 change/bp) and Vκ and Vλ (6.67 × 10−2 and 1.74 × 10−2 change/bp) genes of two CLLs (1.19 and 1.32, respectively) was similar, and higher than that in the corresponding gene segments of the third CLL (1.69; 3.4 × 10−3 and 6.67 × 10−3 change/bp). In all three CLLs, there was no preferential representation of nucleotide changes yielding amino acid replacement (R mutations), nor was there any preferential segregation of R mutations within the Ig V gene complementarity-determining regions. In all three CLLs, the somatic mutations were all identical in multiple Ig VHDJH transcripts at any given time point, and were all conserved at multiple time points throughout a 2-yr period. The lack of concentration of R mutations in the complementarity-determining regions and the lack of intraclonal heterogeneity suggest that Ag may no longer be able to play a significant role in the clonal expansion of these cells. This conclusion would be strengthened further by the germline configuration of the bcl-1 and bcl-2 proto-oncogenes that are translocated in neoplastic B cells that display significant traces of intraclonal diversification and Ag-dependent selection, such as B-prolymphocytic leukemia and low grade follicular non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

VH Repertoire of a Marsupial (Monodelphis domestica)

When contrasted with information available for placental mammals, very little is known about the development of immunocompetence in marsupials. Marsupials, however, provide interesting immunology problems, since most appear to be born at a stage of development much less mature than that of placental mammals. To further understand the marsupial immune system, the Ig repertoire of the short-tailed opossum, Monodelphis domestica, was characterized. The majority of the VH clones were isolated in an unbiased manner by screening a spleen cDNA phage library, using C region probes, or anchored PCR, using C region-specific primers paired with vector specific primers. Analysis of 54 unique VH sequences from this marsupial revealed the presence of two VH families in the expressed Ig repertoire. The larger family, which contributed the majority of the clones identified, appears to be derived from 10 to 12 germline VH segments. The second family of clones is derived from a single germline VH. Both VH families are related to the group III sequences described in other vertebrates. Unusual codon bias differences between the two families may result in very different patterns of somatic mutation within the opossum Ig repertoire.

V gene sequences of lupus-derived human IgM anti-ssDNA antibody: implication for the importance of the location of DNA-binding amino acids

Binding and structural characteristics of human IgMk anti-ssDNA antibody 7B3 were determined. 7B3 was derived from Epstein-Barr virus-transformed peripheral blood B cells of a lupus nephritis patient. Purified 7B3 bound ssDNA from various species, but not dsDNA or structurally unrelated antigens. The relative avidity of 7B3 was high in comparison with IgM anti-DNA antibodies previously described by other investigators. Sequence analysis showed that 7B3 used VH26/D35/JH3 and Humkv328h5/JK1 germline genes, and had a few mutations in the complementarity determining regions (CDRs). No arginine was expressed in the heavy-chain CDR3. However, the putative DNA contact sites, based on the previous crystallographic and computer modeling studies, were occupied by mutated or germline-derived basic and polar amino acids. These results suggest that a minimally mutated IgM anti-ssDNA antibody with a paucity of arginines could display monospecificity and high avidity if DNA-binding amino acids are enriched at the critical DNA contact sites.

Genetic, structural and functional properties of an IgG DNA-binding monoclonal antibody from a lupus patient with nephritis

Antibodies binding to double-stranded (ds) DNA are strongly associated with renal involvement in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We have generated two new IgG DNA-binding monoclonal antibodies (mAb), RH-14 and DIL-6, from the peripheral blood lymphocytes of two SLE patients with glomerulonephritis using the heteromyeloma cell line CB-F7. RH-14 is an IgG1 lambda antibody which also bound to single-stranded DNA, histones and nucleosomes. DIL-6 is an IgG3 lambda antibody with restricted antigen binding specificity. cDNA encoding the variable regions of the heavy (V(H)) and light (V(L)) chains of RH-14 was sequenced and the antigen binding site of this mAb was computer modelled. Sequence analysis of V(H) and V(L) regions of RH-14 showed that V(H) is derived from germ-line gene V3-7, a member of the V(H)3 family, and V(L) is derived from DPL 11, a member of the V(lambda)2 family. Somatic mutations and basic amino acid residues are identified in the complementarity-determining regions of both V(H) and V(L) regions. The nephritogenic properties of these mAb were analyzed by implanting and growing the hybridoma cells secreting the mAb in the peritoneum of SCID mice. The animals that received the RH-14 hybridoma produced higher levels of proteinuria (3 to > or = 4) (p < 0.001) compared to the groups that received DIL-6 (trace to > or = 1) or CB-F7 (trace). Electron microscopy of kidney sections from all the RH-14-implanted animals showed granular immunoglobulin deposition in the renal glomerular capillaries and mesangium. In this study we have shown for the first time using electron microscopy that a human IgG anti-dsDNA mAb, RH-14, is nephritogenic and that deposition of such an antibody alone is sufficient to induce renal damage.

Interphase detection of BCL6/IgH fusion gene in non-Hodgkin lymphoma by fluorescence in situ hybridization

We characterized a t(3;14)(q27;q32) translocation in nine patients with B-cell, non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL) by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Fluorescence in situ hybridization with immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) and BCL6 gene probes detected t(3;14) rapidly and accurately, including complex t(3;14) in three patients; one with t(3;12;8;14)(q27;p13;q24.1;q32) and two with t(3;?;14)(q27;?;q32). Among these nine patients, seven escaped from cytogenetic detection by our G-banding analysis. Double-color FISH with IgH (Y6) and BCL6 (cosB5-1) showed fusion of BCL6 and IgH genes on der(3)t(3;14) in all nine patients, suggesting that der(3) may play a critical role in the development of lymphoma carrying complex as well as standard t(3;14) translocations. BCL6/IgH fusion gene was also demonstrated in interphase nuclei at a frequency of 23% to 91.5% over the cut-off value in control studies (9.0 +/- 2.76%). The breakpoints assessed by FISH with two cosmid clones containing BCL6 probes, cosB5-1 and cosB5-2, were within the cluster region in seven patients including one with complex type, but were not evaluated in two patients with t(3;?;14), because of the loss of partner chromosome. Using double-color FISH with these two BCL6-specific probes, none of an additional 32 patients in whom mitotic spreads were available showed 3q27 translocations. Fluorescence in situ hybridization with IgH and BCL6 gene probes is a rapid and sensitive method to detect t(3;14) in routine cytogenetic studies.

Analysis of immunoglobulin G kappa antithyroid peroxidase antibodies from different tissues in Hashimoto's thyroiditis

Antibodies (Ab) to thyroid peroxidase (TPO) are common in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease and may play a role in disease pathogenesis. We have prepared immunoglobulin G kappa (IgG kappa) and IgG lambda phage display combinatorial libraries from the cervical (thyroid-draining) lymph nodes of 2 Hashimoto's thyroiditis patients and from the thyroid of 1 patient. After selection with purified recombinant human TPO, up to 10 high affinity IgG kappa clones from each tissue source were analyzed further. No IgG lambda Fab were detected in the patient with the highest TPO Ab titer. Sequence analysis of the clones showed restricted heavy and light chain usage, similar to that in previously published TPO-reactive Fabs. This was despite the substantially larger sizes of the initial libraries, the use of lymph node tissue to generate libraries, and the analysis of the repertoire in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis rather than Graves' disease. There was overall similarity in sequences obtained from lymph node and thyroid libraries, with higher levels of somatic hypermutation in the former. The Fab inhibited binding of serum TPO Ab from five patients by 55-95%. These data together with those from previous reports indicate that although there is no unique Ab gene usage, there is the recurrent presence of certain variable regions in the high affinity TPO Ab response.

Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells in lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin disease represent clonal populations of germinal center-derived tumor B cells

Among the four subtypes of Hodgkin disease (HD), lymphocyte-predominant (LP) HD is now generally considered as a separate entity. The B cell nature of the typical Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells and their variants (L and H, lymphocytic and histiocytic cells) in LP HD has long been suspected, but the question of whether these cells represent a true tumor clone is unclear. We previously demonstrated clonal Ig gene rearrangements in one case of LP HD. In the present study, five cases of LP HD were analyzed by micromanipulation of single HRS cells from frozen tissue sections and DNA amplification of rearranged Ig heavy chain genes from those cells. Clonal V gene rearrangements harboring somatic mutations were detected in each case. In three cases ongoing somatic mutation was evident. This shows that HRS cells in LP HD are a clonal tumor population derived from germinal center B cells. The pattern of somatic mutation indicates that HRS cells in LP HD are selected for antibody expression. This, and the presence of ongoing mutation discriminates LP from classical HD.

Evolution by the birth-and-death process in multigene families of the vertebrate immune system

Concerted evolution is often invoked to explain the diversity and evolution of the multigene families of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes and immunoglobulin (Ig) genes. However, this hypothesis has been controversial because the member genes of these families from the same species are not necessarily more closely related to one another than to the genes from different species. To resolve this controversy, we conducted phylogenetic analyses of several multigene families of the MHC and Ig systems. The results show that the evolutionary pattern of these families is quite different from that of concerted evolution but is in agreement with the birth-and-death model of evolution in which new genes are created by repeated gene duplication and some duplicate genes are maintained in the genome for a long time but others are deleted or become nonfunctional by deleterious mutations. We found little evidence that interlocus gene conversion plays an important role in the evolution of MHC and Ig multigene families.

The Ig Heavy Chain Gene Is Frequently Involved in Chromosomal Translocations in Multiple Myeloma and Plasma Cell Leukemia as Detected by In Situ Hybridization

Chromosome rearrangement of 14q32.33 has recurrently occurred with variable partner sites, including 11q13.3, 8q24.1, 18q21.3, and 6p21.1 in multiple myeloma (MM). To assess the actual incidence of 14q32.33 translocation and to elucidate its implication in the pathogenesis of MM, we studied 42 patients with MM, plasma cell leukemia, or plasmacytoma and 5 with monoclonal gammopathy with undetermined significance (MGUS) by G-banding and molecular cytogenetic methods. Using double-color fluorescence in situ hybridization (DCFISH) with 2 Ig heavy chain (IgH) gene probes, a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) clone containing variable region, and a phage clone containing γ constant region, 14q32.33 translocation was detected as split signals of the IgH gene in 31 patients with plasma cell malignancies and 3 with MGUS. In contrast, of 40 patients who were assessed by G-banding, 3 (7.5%) showed the 14q+ chromosome. DCFISH detected a split of the IgH gene on interphase nuclei in 34 (73.9%) of 46 patients analyzed, whereas on metaphase spreads, it was in 22 (51.2%) of 43 patients analyzed. Interphase DCFISH was particularly useful to detect 14q32.33 translocation in 17 (65.4%) of 26 patients with normal karyotypes. Donor sites were identified in 11 of 22 patients demonstrated as carrying 14q32.33 translocation by metaphase FISH. Chromosome t(11; 14)(q13.3; q32.33) was detected in 5 patients, t(8; 14)(q24.1; q32.33) in 2, t(14; 18)(q32.33; q21.3) in 2, and t(7; 14)(q32.1; q32.33) in 1. A complex 14q32.33 translocation involving 3q and 16q24 was detected in 1 patient. Myeloma cells with t(7; 14) showed myelomonocytoid surface antigen. Because rearrangements of 14q32.33 were closely associated with translocation of proto-oncogenes into the IgH gene, our findings indicate that 14q32.33 translocation with various partner chromosomes is a critical event in the pathogenesis of MM and MGUS.

The Ig Heavy Chain Gene Is Frequently Involved in Chromosomal Translocations in Multiple Myeloma and Plasma Cell Leukemia as Detected by In Situ Hybridization

Chromosome rearrangement of 14q32.33 has recurrently occurred with variable partner sites, including 11q13.3, 8q24.1, 18q21.3, and 6p21.1 in multiple myeloma (MM). To assess the actual incidence of 14q32.33 translocation and to elucidate its implication in the pathogenesis of MM, we studied 42 patients with MM, plasma cell leukemia, or plasmacytoma and 5 with monoclonal gammopathy with undetermined significance (MGUS) by G-banding and molecular cytogenetic methods. Using double-color fluorescence in situ hybridization (DCFISH) with 2 Ig heavy chain (IgH) gene probes, a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) clone containing variable region, and a phage clone containing γ constant region, 14q32.33 translocation was detected as split signals of the IgH gene in 31 patients with plasma cell malignancies and 3 with MGUS. In contrast, of 40 patients who were assessed by G-banding, 3 (7.5%) showed the 14q+ chromosome. DCFISH detected a split of the IgH gene on interphase nuclei in 34 (73.9%) of 46 patients analyzed, whereas on metaphase spreads, it was in 22 (51.2%) of 43 patients analyzed. Interphase DCFISH was particularly useful to detect 14q32.33 translocation in 17 (65.4%) of 26 patients with normal karyotypes. Donor sites were identified in 11 of 22 patients demonstrated as carrying 14q32.33 translocation by metaphase FISH. Chromosome t(11; 14)(q13.3; q32.33) was detected in 5 patients, t(8; 14)(q24.1; q32.33) in 2, t(14; 18)(q32.33; q21.3) in 2, and t(7; 14)(q32.1; q32.33) in 1. A complex 14q32.33 translocation involving 3q and 16q24 was detected in 1 patient. Myeloma cells with t(7; 14) showed myelomonocytoid surface antigen. Because rearrangements of 14q32.33 were closely associated with translocation of proto-oncogenes into the IgH gene, our findings indicate that 14q32.33 translocation with various partner chromosomes is a critical event in the pathogenesis of MM and MGUS.

Molecular analysis of the antibody response to thyroglobulin and thyroid peroxidase

In this review, we discuss the latest results concerning the molecular analysis of antibodies (Ab) directed toward thyroid autoantigens. In particular, we attempt to define patterns within the Ab repertoire that correlate best to their activities. Whilst a considerable amount is now known concerning the Ab response to thyroid peroxidase (TPO), there is still much we do not understand. We review evidence for the site of interaction of TPO-reactive Ab with native TPO. The Ab responses to thyroglobulin (Tg) and, in particular, the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSH-R), are much less well characterised. In this review, we focus on the molecular analysis of the Ab response to Tg and TPO, assessing the repertoire as it is currently known. In addition, we have tried to link this information with the analysis of the epitopes recognised by the various Ab. Finally, we discuss one of the more unusual features of the thyroid Ab repertoire, the use of D-D fusion at heavy chain junctions, and questions raised by our current state of knowledge, such as the role of Ab using germline V regions in antigen recognition.

Diffuse large cell lymphomas are derived from mature B cells carrying V region genes with a high load of somatic mutation and evidence of selection for antibody expression

In the Revised European American Lymphoma (REAL) classification, several subtypes of high-grade lymphomas were combined in the entity diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLL). In the present study, a total of 19 cases of DLL (10 cases of centroblastic lymphoma, 5 cases of mediastinal B cell lymphoma, 2 cases of immunoblastic lymphoma, 1 case of T cell-rich B lymphoma and one case of large cell anaplastic lymphoma) were analyzed for somatically mutated immunoglobulin V region genes. Somatic mutations are acquired in the course of the germinal center (GC) reaction and are thus found in GC B cells and their descendants, i.e. memory B cells. The V gene sequences revealed that the tumor cells of all five subtypes of DLL harbored mutated V region genes and are thus derived from antigen-experienced (post) GC B cells. This indicates that from the point of view of the stage of development of the tumor precursor, the combination of those five subtypes to one entity, i.e. DLL, seems reasonable. In some cases, an unusually high frequency of somatic mutations was detected. This may indicate that DLL are derived from GC B cells, which, due to transforming events, stayed in the GC for prolonged periods of time, thereby accumulating a high load of somatic mutation. An analysis of the mutation pattern suggests that the tumor clone or its precursor were selected for antibody expression while acquiring somatic mutations. The latter observation discriminates DLL from classical Hodgkin's disease, where we recently also observed a high load of somatic mutation within rearranged V region genes, but a frequent occurrence of crippling mutations.

Restricted Use of Cationic Germline VH Gene Segments in Human Rh(D) Red Cell Antibodies

The human red cell Rh(D) antigen elicits the production of high-affinity IgG antibodies, which can prevent blood transfusion and cause hemolytic disease of the newborn. It has been known for 20 years that Rh(D) antibodies are among the most positively charged human serum IgGs. Analysis by IEF of 9 human anti-Rh(D) monoclonal antibodies showed that their isoelectric points (pI) (8.3 to 8.6) were also significantly higher than the average pI of serum IgGs (7.0 to 8.5). Sequencing of the anti-Rh(D) H and L chains cDNAs showed a preferential use of VH1 , VH3, JH6, and Vκ1 gene segments. The high pIs in IEF were correlated with a higher number of cationic amino acid residues in the H chain V regions without clustering in the complementary determining region. Computer analysis indicated that the germline VH used in anti-Rh(D) was selected among the most cationic segments available in the human VH repertoire or expressed in normal B cells. These results indicate that the selection of cationic VH segments may be an important early step in the formation of clinically relevant anti-Rh(D) and other red cell antibodies, possibly to facilitate epitope binding in the negatively charged red cell membrane environment.

A complementarity-determining region peptide of an anti-desmosome autoantibody may interact with the desmosomal plaque through molecular mimicry with a cytoplasmic desmoglein 1 sequence

The sera of patients with pemphigus, a group of autoimmune blistering skin diseases, contain autoantibodies directed against components of adhering junctions termed desmosomes. F12, a human monoclonal antibody derived from a pemphigus patient, recognizes an unknown polypeptide of the desmosomal and hemidesmosomal plaques. The third complementarity-determining region of the F12 heavy chain (VH-CDR3) was shown to share a four-amino-acid sequence (GSSG) with the intracellular domains of desmoglein 1 and bullous pemphigoid antigen 2 which interact with components of, respectively, the desmosomal and hemidesmosomal plaques. Computer modeling of F12 showed that the GSSG sequence protudes inside the antigen-combining site and thus might be involved in antigen interactions. The GSSG sequence is essential to F12 function, since a peptide containing the VH-CDR3 inhibited its binding to target antigens while VH-CDR3 peptides with specific modifications of the GSSG sequence did not. These data allow us to hypothesize that certain autoantibodies produced during the course of an autoimmune disease can behave as adhesion molecules, through the molecular mimicry of the motif involved in protein/protein adhesion, and to propose a new self-antigen binding mechanism for some autoantibodies.

Immunoglobulin lambda light chain orphons on human chromosome 8q11.2

We have identified two V lambda genes outside the major lambda locus on chromosome 22q11.2, and shown that they reside on chromosome 8q11.2. One gene (Orphée1), hybridizing strongly to the V lambda probes, was sequenced and found to belong to the V lambda 8 family; the other gene (Orphée2) only hybridized weakly. Orphée1 was present in all individuals tested (140) from three different populations, and was also found in gorillas. We envisage that these genes were generated by duplication and translocation of the V lambda 8a gene (and a V lambda pseudogene) from the major locus, and that this event occurred before the evolutionary divergence of humans and gorillas. As there is no other evidence for V lambda genes outside the major locus, it appears that the human lambda locus has undergone considerably less evolutionary shuffling than either the human light chain kappa locus or the heavy chain locus.

Cell display library for gene cloning of variable regions of human antibodies to hepatitis B surface antigen

A novel cell display system was developed for cloning the variable region (V) genes of antigen-specific human antibodies. The system is based on an antibody library displayed on the surface of COS cells, using a plasmid vector designed to direct expression of membrane-bound antibodies. COS cells expressing antigen-specific antibodies were separated using a flow cytometer for their binding to a fluorescent dye-labeled antigen. To test the performance of this system. We cloned V genes of 4 antibodies directed against hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) from a library prepared from peripheral blood lymphocytes of a vaccinated donor. These membrane-bound anti-HBsAg antibodies were easily converted to soluble forms, all of which showed a size similar to human serum IgG in SDS-PAGE and the same specific binding to HBsAg as membrane-bound forms in ELISA. All VH and VK gene segments of the 4 clones isolated in this study belonged to VHIII and VKI subgroups, respectively. These findings demonstrate the potential and selection capabilities of our cell display system for cloning the V genes of antigen-specific human antibodies.

One-megabase sequence analysis of the human immunoglobulin lambda gene locus

A total of 1,025,415 bases of nucleotide sequence, including the entire human immunoglobulin lambda gene locus has been determined. This is the largest contiguous human DNA sequence ever published. The sequence data revealed the organization of 36 potentially active V lambda gene segments, 33 pseudogene segments, and seven J lambda-C lambda gene segments. Among these 69 functional or nonfunctional V lambda gene segments, 32 were newly discovered. These V lambda gene segments are located within five gene-rich clusters and are divided into five clans based on sequence identity. Five potentially active nonimmunoglobulin genes were also detected within the lambda gene locus, and two other genes were observed in the upstream region. Sequence organization suggests that large DNA duplications diversified the germ-line repertoire of the V lambda gene segments.

Molecular Characterization of IgA- and/or IgG-Switched Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia B Cells

The immunoglobulin (Ig) variable region (V) genes expressed by IgM chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) B cells display little or no somatic mutations. However, preliminary findings have shown that Ig V genes of IgA and IgG CLLs may be somatically mutated, suggesting that isotype-switched CLLs may represent a “subtype” of the disease. To investigate the degree and nature of somatic mutations and the role of antigen (Ag) in the clonal selection and expansion of isotype-switched CLLs, and to determine whether specific oncogene or tumor suppressor gene mutations are associated with isotype-switched CLLs, we analyzed the expressed Ig VH gene, bcl-1 and bcl-2 proto-oncogene, and p53 tumor suppressor gene configurations of 3 IgA-, 1 IgG-, and 1 IgA/IgG-expressing CLLs. These isotype-switched CLL B cells expressed surface HLA-DR, CD19, CD23, and CD5, and displayed no alterations of the bcl-1 and bcl-2 oncogenes and the p53 tumor-suppressor gene. The cDNA VH -D-JH gene sequence was joined with that of the Cα gene in the B cells of the three IgA CLLs, and with that of the Cγ gene in the IgG CLL B cells. In the IgA/IgG-coexpressing CLL B cells, identical VH -D-JH cDNA sequences were spliced to either Cα or Cγ genes. In all five CLLs, the pattern of Cμ DNA probe hybridization to the digested genomic DNAs was consistent with deletion of the Cμ exon from the rearranged Ig gene locus, suggesting that these CLL B cells had undergone DNA switch recombination. In one IgA CLL, the expressed VH gene was unmutated. In all other class-switched CLLs, the Ig VH segment gene was mutated, but the point mutations were not associated with intraclonal diversification. In one IgA and in the IgA/IgG-coexpressing CLL, the nature and distribution of the mutations were consistent with Ag selection. These findings suggest that IgA- and/or IgG-expressing CLLs represent, in their VH gene structure, transformants of B cells at different stages of ontogeny. They also suggest that Ag may play a role in the clonal selection of some of these isotype-switched leukemic cells, but bcl-1 and bcl-2 oncogene rearrangements and p53 tumor suppressor gene mutation are not associated with the pathogenesis of isotype-switched CLLs.

Molecular Characterization of IgA- and/or IgG-Switched Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia B Cells

The immunoglobulin (Ig) variable region (V) genes expressed by IgM chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) B cells display little or no somatic mutations. However, preliminary findings have shown that Ig V genes of IgA and IgG CLLs may be somatically mutated, suggesting that isotype-switched CLLs may represent a “subtype” of the disease. To investigate the degree and nature of somatic mutations and the role of antigen (Ag) in the clonal selection and expansion of isotype-switched CLLs, and to determine whether specific oncogene or tumor suppressor gene mutations are associated with isotype-switched CLLs, we analyzed the expressed Ig VH gene, bcl-1 and bcl-2 proto-oncogene, and p53 tumor suppressor gene configurations of 3 IgA-, 1 IgG-, and 1 IgA/IgG-expressing CLLs. These isotype-switched CLL B cells expressed surface HLA-DR, CD19, CD23, and CD5, and displayed no alterations of the bcl-1 and bcl-2 oncogenes and the p53 tumor-suppressor gene. The cDNA VH -D-JH gene sequence was joined with that of the Cα gene in the B cells of the three IgA CLLs, and with that of the Cγ gene in the IgG CLL B cells. In the IgA/IgG-coexpressing CLL B cells, identical VH -D-JH cDNA sequences were spliced to either Cα or Cγ genes. In all five CLLs, the pattern of Cμ DNA probe hybridization to the digested genomic DNAs was consistent with deletion of the Cμ exon from the rearranged Ig gene locus, suggesting that these CLL B cells had undergone DNA switch recombination. In one IgA CLL, the expressed VH gene was unmutated. In all other class-switched CLLs, the Ig VH segment gene was mutated, but the point mutations were not associated with intraclonal diversification. In one IgA and in the IgA/IgG-coexpressing CLL, the nature and distribution of the mutations were consistent with Ag selection. These findings suggest that IgA- and/or IgG-expressing CLLs represent, in their VH gene structure, transformants of B cells at different stages of ontogeny. They also suggest that Ag may play a role in the clonal selection of some of these isotype-switched leukemic cells, but bcl-1 and bcl-2 oncogene rearrangements and p53 tumor suppressor gene mutation are not associated with the pathogenesis of isotype-switched CLLs.

Differences in mutational patterns between rheumatoid factors in health and disease are related to variable heavy chain family and germ-line gene usage

The sequences of the heavy chain variable (V(H)) segment and dissociation constants (Kd) of 14 IgM rheumatoid factors (RF) derived from 11 different germline gene segments from five healthy immunized donors (HID) are described. We extend a previous analysis of two clones from one donor using only the germline segment DP-10. In the present study, the mutation patterns of these new RF and the two earlier reported HID RF clones are analyzed in relation to V(H) family, germ-line origin, and Kd. The panel of HID RF is further compared with 33 previously described IgM RF from patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). There is a high rate of mutation in the panel of HID RF (mean of ten mutations/V(H)). RF originating in RA patients have a comparable mutation rate (mean of 11 mutations/V(H)), suggesting that hypermutation of IgM RF is not disease related. The HID RF have, however, a significantly lower affinity for IgG than the RA RF. We found that the structural basis of the differences between HID and RA RF is related to V(H) family usage. RF of the V(H)1 family use very similar germ-line genes in HID and RA patients. HID RF of the V(H)1 family have, however, a low ratio of replacement-to-silent (R:S) mutations of only 0.41 in the heavy chain complementarity region (CDR(H))1 and 2. This is statistically significantly lower than the corresponding ratio of 3.14 in the V(H)1 RA RF. In contrast, RF of the V(H)3 family from HID and RA patients have very similar R:S ratios of 1.75 and 1.71 in CDR(H)1 and 2, respectively. The V(H)3 RA RF are, however, predominantly encoded by genes not encoding any HID RF. Thus, both repertoire differences and hypermutation resulting in significantly lower R:S ratios can be observed in RF from HID compared with RA RF.

The production, binding characteristics and sequence analysis of four human IgG monoclonal antiphospholipid antibodies

Antiphospholid antibodies (APL) have a notable association with recurrent miscarriages, arterial and venous thrombosis and thrombocytopenia. Analysis of the potential pathogenic effects of such human antibodies has been hampered by the considerable difficulty in producing IgG as opposed to IgM monoclonal immunoglobulins. We have developed four human monoclonal IgG APL (LJ1, AH2, DA3 and UK4) by fusing the peripheral blood lymphocytes of three patients with SLE with a mouse human heteromyeloma cell line, CB-F7. These antibodies bind to a variety of anionic phospholipids, two (LJ1 and AH2) bind total histones but none binds to ssDNA or dsDNA. Binding to beta 2 GPI is non-specific. UK4 alone demonstrates lupus anticoagulant activity. All four have lambda light chains, two are IgG1 (AH2 and UK4) and two are IgG3 (LJ1 and DA3). These APL utilize VH genes present in the fetally restricted repertoire and multiple somatic mutations in the CDR suggest an antigen-driven process. In contrast, there is no restriction in V lambda gene usage and only one lambda chain is extensively mutated. Two clonally related hybridomas were isolated from a single patients. This supports the theory that clonal expansion is the mechanism whereby antigen selects high affinity mutations.

VH gene expression in CD5 positive and CD5 negative B cell chronic lymphoid malignancies

In this review, we report analyses of VH genes in mature B cell malignancies generally or occasionally bearing CD5 antigen such as B CLL, MCL, SLVL and PLL. In the majority of cases, B CLL and MCL use VH genes in germline configuration. However in some cases a higher rate of random mutations is observed. These differences are not related to CD5 expression but are accounted by Ig phenotype, since less mutations are observed in CLL cases expressing membrane mu delta, when compared to forms exclusively expressing membrane mu. PLL and SLVL cases display mutated V genes independently of CD5 expression. Although there is some evidence that CD5+ B cells constitute a separate lineage, the possibility that CD5 constitutes an activation marker cannot be ruled out. Indeed, CD5- B cells can be induced to differentiate into CD5+ B cells and VH gene analyses showed no significative differences between CD5+ and CD5- B cell lymphoproliferative disorders. In this review we have tried to examine B cell chronic malignancies on the basis of phenotype and VH gene usage. Thus we propose a tentative classification where these disorders are allocated according to these characteristics.

VH gene use by HIV type 1-associated lymphoproliferations

The pathogenesis of polyclonal HIV-associated lymphomas lacking traditional B cell cofactors (i.e., Epstein-Barr virus [EBV] infection, c-myc translocations) is poorly understood. A multistep pathogenesis model has been proposed in which polyclonal lymphomas represent an earlier stage in HIV-associated lymphomagenesis before the emergence of a dominant malignant clone. Chronically present antigens have been proposed as a likely stimulus for polyclonal B cell proliferation; if so, polyclonal lymphoma-associated immunoglobulins (Igs) should have molecular evidence of somatic hypermutation, a process by which antibody affinity maturation in response to chronic antigenic stimulation occurs. Molecular analyses of Ig heavy chain variable (V(H)) gene use by B cells in a polyclonal HIV-associated large cell lymphoma lacking EBV and c-myc rearrangement was undertaken. Eighteen randomly selected clones generated from RT-PCR yielded 15 unique V(H) sequences, all of which were most homologous to only three previously identified germline V(H)1 genes. Two sets of clones (consisting of three and two clones, respectively) had identical V(H) gene sequences, and one pair of clones had identical third complementarity determining regions (CDR3s) but different V(H) gene sequences; eight clones were <95% homologous to their most related germline V(H)1 genes. We compared these results with Ig V(H)1 gene use by B cells present in a reactive hyperplastic lymph node obtained from an HIV-1-infected individual. Fifteen clones randomly selected from RT-PCRs yielded 15 unique V(H)1 sequences, all of which were most homologous to 5 previously identified germline V(H)1 genes; 10 clones were <95% homologous to their most related germline gene. Binomial probability analysis revealed that only 1 of the 15 unique V(H)1 sequences derived from the polyclonal lymphoma (i.e., 7%), as compared with 5 of 15 unique V(H)1 sequences derived from the reactive lymph node (i.e., 33%), had a low probability of occurrence by random chance (p < 0.05). These data provide molecular evidence of polyclonality in an HIV-associated polyclonal lymphoma, demonstrate a qualitative difference in somatic hypermutations of Ig V(H) genes associated with malignant versus reactive B cell lymphoproliferations, and support an antigen-mediated multistep pathogenesis model of HIV-1-associated lymphomagenesis.

Memory B lymphocytes migrate to bone marrow in humans

IgM-bearing B lymphocytes with mature phenotype (CD10- CD24(lo) IgD+) are acquired after birth in the bone marrow of humans. These B cells are defined here as relatively large, nondividing lymphocytes, variable proportions of which express cell surface molecules indicative of relatively recent activation. Analysis of V(H)5(2) (heavy chain variable region) gene transcripts indicated point mutations throughout the Ig variable region from the mature IgM+ B population but not from the immature B cells in the bone marrow. The mutations were concentrated in the complementarity determining regions, and amino acid substitutions were favored over silent mutations, findings indicative of antigen selection within germinal centers in peripheral lymphoid tissues. The V(H) sequence analysis also revealed the existence of clonal relatives in individual bone marrow samples. These antigen-experienced lymphocytes did not secrete Ig spontaneously but could be induced to do so in vitro. The data suggest that a subpopulation of memory B lymphocytes generated during antigen responses recirculates to the bone marrow in humans.

Polymorphism of the human immunoglobulin heavy chain locus in rheumatoid arthritis

The genetic origin of Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is largely unknown. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the potential genetically determined involvement of the immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy chain variable region (VH) locus in the pathogenesis of RA. We tested the hypothesis of whether there is a genetic linkage between a structural abnormality of the VH gene complex and autoantibody hyperproduction in RA. We used restriction endonuclease generated polymorphism with human VH gene-family-specific probes to examine genomic DNA from a RA family and from unrelated RA patients from both the Tunisian and the European populations. The use of DNA samples from these ethnic origins permitted a further evaluation of the polymorphism of the human VH locus. While we found that the polymorphism of the VH locus was lower in the Tunisian population, we could not detect a restriction site polymorphism pattern restricted to RA. Together, our results do not support the involvement of major abnormalities of the Ig VH locus as a primary source in the development of RA.

Myeloma VL and VH Gene Sequences Reveal a Complementary Imprint of Antigen Selection in Tumor Cells

In multiple myeloma, sequence studies of VH genes used to encode clonal Ig in neoplastic plasma cells have shown a common pattern of extensive somatic hypermutation. A further consistent feature of these VH sequences is a complete lack of intraclonal variation. These findings indicate that the malignant cell arises at a mature, postfollicular stage of B-cell development. However, only a minority of cases have a distribution of somatic mutations in VH consistent with a prior role for antigen in selecting the B cell of origin. To complement these studies, and to take further the investigation of a role for antigen in the clonal history of myeloma, we have investigated tumor-derived VL sequences from bone marrows of 15 patients. All sequences (9Vκ and 6Vλ) were potentially functional and 5 of 15 had evidence for N-region additions. All had undergone extensive somatic hypermutation, and showed no intraclonal variation. In 4 of 15 cases, the distribution of mutations revealed a significant (P < .05) clustering of replacement mutations in the CDR sequences, indicating a role for VL in selection by antigen. Comparison with the VH sequences used by the same tumor cells showed that, if significant clustering was present, it was in either VH or VL, but not both. Altogether, 10 of 15 V-regions showed evidence for antigen selection, suggesting that the B cell of origin has behaved as a normal germinal center B cell. Deductions concerning a role for antigen selection may require both VH and VL sequences for validation.

Myeloma VL and VH Gene Sequences Reveal a Complementary Imprint of Antigen Selection in Tumor Cells

In multiple myeloma, sequence studies of VH genes used to encode clonal Ig in neoplastic plasma cells have shown a common pattern of extensive somatic hypermutation. A further consistent feature of these VH sequences is a complete lack of intraclonal variation. These findings indicate that the malignant cell arises at a mature, postfollicular stage of B-cell development. However, only a minority of cases have a distribution of somatic mutations in VH consistent with a prior role for antigen in selecting the B cell of origin. To complement these studies, and to take further the investigation of a role for antigen in the clonal history of myeloma, we have investigated tumor-derived VL sequences from bone marrows of 15 patients. All sequences (9Vκ and 6Vλ) were potentially functional and 5 of 15 had evidence for N-region additions. All had undergone extensive somatic hypermutation, and showed no intraclonal variation. In 4 of 15 cases, the distribution of mutations revealed a significant (P < .05) clustering of replacement mutations in the CDR sequences, indicating a role for VL in selection by antigen. Comparison with the VH sequences used by the same tumor cells showed that, if significant clustering was present, it was in either VH or VL, but not both. Altogether, 10 of 15 V-regions showed evidence for antigen selection, suggesting that the B cell of origin has behaved as a normal germinal center B cell. Deductions concerning a role for antigen selection may require both VH and VL sequences for validation.

VH repertoire in human B lymphocytes stimulated by CD40 ligand and IL-4: evidence for positive and negative selection mechanisms coupled to CD40 activation

In the normal immune system, B cells are thought to be negatively or positively selected at various checkpoints during their maturation; a process that maintains a broad immunoglobulin repertoire while eliminating non-functional or potentially harmful autoreactive antibodies. This study tested the hypothesis that utilization of certain immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region (VH) genes, possibly as a consequence of intrinsic affinity for various ligands, directs positive or negative B cell selection coupled to B cell activation in the periphery during the immune response. The specific prediction that the VH repertoire of CD40-activated B cells would differ from the repertoire of unstimulated cells from the same donor, was tested by assessing VH utilization among human B cell clones grown in vitro, following stimulation with CD40 ligand (CD40L) and IL-4. The results showed that, although utilization of the known VH families and of individual VH3 genes was similar to that found in unstimulated B lymphocytes of the same donor, utilization of individual VH4 genes in CD40-activated B cells displayed a pattern that was markedly different from that of the unstimulated B cells. An allele of V4-61, V4-61b, was over-represented among the activated cells and, in contrast, the V4-34 gene (known to encode cold agglutinins with strong autoreactive properties) was modestly represented among the VH4 activated B cells, although V4-34 was overwhelmingly predominant in the repertoire of resting B cells. These results point to the existence of selection mechanisms that operate during B cell activation in the periphery. These mechanisms may favor B cells utilizing certain VH genes and disfavor the cells that utilize other genes, possibly because utilization of the latter confers autoreactivity.

Comparison of the immunoglobulin heavy-chain complementarity determining region-3 structure among the DNA sequences and the mu- and gamma-transcripts in human B-lineage cells

To study the recombinational significance of the (immunoglobulin heavy) IgH chain gene in human B-cell development, we compared the complementarity determining region (CDR)-3 sequences of the DNA and the mu-transcripts from human normal pre-B cells and mature B cells, and the gamma-transcripts from bone marrow cells. The CDR-3 sequences were longer in the DNA than in the mu- and gamma-transcripts, and this was independent of whether or not the rearrangement was productive. The DLR family genes were less frequently used in the mu- and gamma-transcripts. When translated into amino acids, all CDR-3 sequences from the mu- and gamma-transcripts were productive, although 26.2% of the DNA sequences had stop codons in the D element and/or frameshifts of the JH gene segments. The CDR-3 of the productive DNA sequences in pre-B cells frequently (26.6%) contained at least three continuous hydrophobic amino acids, which were mainly coded by the DLR and DXP family genes at the third reading frame. However, such motifs were rate in the mu-transcripts of pre-B (7.7%) and mature B cells (3.9%), and in the gamma-transcripts of bone marrow cells (1.1%) as well as in the DNA of mature B cells (10.4%). These findings suggested that the length and/or hydrophobicity of the IgH CDR-3 might play a role in the selection mechanisms of B-cell development.

Comparison of rheumatoid factors of rheumatoid arthritis patients, of individuals with mycobacterial infections and of normal controls: evidence for maturation in the absence of an autoimmune response

We analyzed the rheumatoid factors (RF) produced by Epstein-Barr virus-transformed monoclonal B cells established from four patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), three individuals with a history of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) and four normal controls (NI). Fifty-eight RF were analyzed for specific activity (international units-RF/microgram) for the Fc part of IgG and their interaction with tetanus toxoid (TT) and DNA (polyspecificity). Furthermore, we sequenced the V-D-J heavy chain region of 16 (9TB-/7RA-) RF. Significant differences were observed between the NI-RF and the TB- and RA-RF. While the RF repertoire of normal individuals comprised of low-avidity RF of which the majority (15/17) were polyspecific, more than half of the TB- and RA-RF were monoreactive. Furthermore, the monospecific TB- and RA-RF were of significantly higher avidity than the NI-RF (RA > TB > > NI). With respect to polyspecificity specificity, the RF in the three groups were comparable: the interaction with DNA, TT as well as with Fc was inhibited either by an increase of the ionic strength to 0.3-0.5 M NaCl or by addition of the polyanion dextran sulfate, indicating that the antibodies interacted with similar anionic epitopes shared by the three antigens. Analysis of the V-D-J heavy chain regions showed significant differences between the respective RF. The salt-sensitive binding was highly correlated with the presence of arginine in the complementarity-determining region 3 (CDR3). Furthermore, whereas the polyspecific RF consisted predominantly of germ-line encoded antibodies, the genes of the monospecific RA/TB-RF were somatically mutated (RA > TB). It is therefore likely that maturation of RF can be initiated by chronic infections and that monospecific, somatically mutated RF are not a unique characteristic of autoimmune diseases.