101
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Huang Q, Seillet C, Belz GT. Shaping Innate Lymphoid Cell Diversity. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1569. [PMID: 29201028 PMCID: PMC5697340 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a key cell type that are enriched at mucosal surfaces and within tissues. Our understanding of these cells is growing rapidly. Paradoxically, these cells play a role in maintaining tissue integrity but they also function as key drivers of allergy and inflammation. We present here the most recent understanding of how genomics has provided significant insight into how ILCs are generated and the enormous heterogeneity present within the canonical subsets. This has allowed the generation of a detailed blueprint for ILCs to become highly sensitive and adaptive sensors of environmental changes and therefore exquisitely equipped to protect immune surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiutong Huang
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Cyril Seillet
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Gabrielle T Belz
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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102
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Barrow AD, Colonna M. Tailoring Natural Killer cell immunotherapy to the tumour microenvironment. Semin Immunol 2017; 31:30-36. [PMID: 28935344 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic and cytokine-secreting cells that can mediate potent anti-tumour activity. Accumulating evidence indicates that NK cell functions are severely compromised within the confines of the tumour microenvironment thus impairing the efficacy and development of NK cell-based therapies. Here we review the various cellular and molecular pathways that tumours have supplanted to evade NK cell surveillance. We highlight novel strategies designed to alleviate or circumvent the immunosuppressive conditions of the tumour microenvironment in order to emancipate NK cell function and stifle the inexorable growth and metastasis of malignant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander David Barrow
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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103
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Gao Y, Souza-Fonseca-Guimaraes F, Bald T, Ng SS, Young A, Ngiow SF, Rautela J, Straube J, Waddell N, Blake SJ, Yan J, Bartholin L, Lee JS, Vivier E, Takeda K, Messaoudene M, Zitvogel L, Teng MWL, Belz GT, Engwerda CR, Huntington ND, Nakamura K, Hölzel M, Smyth MJ. Tumor immunoevasion by the conversion of effector NK cells into type 1 innate lymphoid cells. Nat Immunol 2017; 18:1004-1015. [PMID: 28759001 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 459] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Avoiding destruction by immune cells is a hallmark of cancer, yet how tumors ultimately evade control by natural killer (NK) cells remains incompletely defined. Using global transcriptomic and flow-cytometry analyses and genetically engineered mouse models, we identified the cytokine-TGF-β-signaling-dependent conversion of NK cells (CD49a-CD49b+Eomes+) into intermediate type 1 innate lymphoid cell (intILC1) (CD49a+CD49b+Eomes+) populations and ILC1 (CD49a+CD49b-Eomesint) populations in the tumor microenvironment. Strikingly, intILC1s and ILC1s were unable to control local tumor growth and metastasis, whereas NK cells favored tumor immunosurveillance. Experiments with an antibody that neutralizes the cytokine TNF suggested that escape from the innate immune system was partially mediated by TNF-producing ILC1s. Our findings provide new insight into the plasticity of group 1 ILCs in the tumor microenvironment and suggest that the TGF-β-driven conversion of NK cells into ILC1s is a previously unknown mechanism by which tumors escape surveillance by the innate immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Gao
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Fernando Souza-Fonseca-Guimaraes
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Molecular Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Department of Medical Biology and The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tobias Bald
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Susanna S Ng
- Immunology and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- School of Natural Sciences, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Arabella Young
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Shin Foong Ngiow
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jai Rautela
- Molecular Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Department of Medical Biology and The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jasmin Straube
- Medical Genomics, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nic Waddell
- Medical Genomics, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen J Blake
- Cancer Immunoregulation and Immunotherapy, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Juming Yan
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Cancer Immunoregulation and Immunotherapy, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Laurent Bartholin
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Centre de recherche en cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Jason S Lee
- Control of Gene Expression Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Eric Vivier
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Kazuyoshi Takeda
- Division of Cell Biology, Biomedical Research Center and Department of Biofunctional Microbiota, Graduate School of Medicine, Juntendo University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Meriem Messaoudene
- INSERM U1015, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Laurence Zitvogel
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- University Paris-Saclay, Kremlin Bicêtre, Paris, France
- CIC1428, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Michele W L Teng
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Cancer Immunoregulation and Immunotherapy, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Gabrielle T Belz
- Molecular Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Department of Medical Biology and The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christian R Engwerda
- Immunology and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas D Huntington
- Molecular Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Department of Medical Biology and The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kyohei Nakamura
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael Hölzel
- Unit for RNA Biology, Department of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Mark J Smyth
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
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104
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105
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López-Soto A, Gonzalez S, Smyth MJ, Galluzzi L. Control of Metastasis by NK Cells. Cancer Cell 2017; 32:135-154. [PMID: 28810142 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2017.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 482] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The metastatic spread of malignant cells to distant anatomical locations is a prominent cause of cancer-related death. Metastasis is governed by cancer-cell-intrinsic mechanisms that enable neoplastic cells to invade the local microenvironment, reach the circulation, and colonize distant sites, including the so-called epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Moreover, metastasis is regulated by microenvironmental and systemic processes, such as immunosurveillance. Here, we outline the cancer-cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic factors that regulate metastasis, discuss the key role of natural killer (NK) cells in the control of metastatic dissemination, and present potential therapeutic approaches to prevent or target metastatic disease by harnessing NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro López-Soto
- Departamento de Biología Funcional, Área de Inmunología, Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain.
| | - Segundo Gonzalez
- Departamento de Biología Funcional, Área de Inmunología, Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Mark J Smyth
- Immunology of Cancer and Infection Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA; Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, 75006 Paris, France.
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106
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Nussbaum K, Burkhard SH, Ohs I, Mair F, Klose CSN, Arnold SJ, Diefenbach A, Tugues S, Becher B. Tissue microenvironment dictates the fate and tumor-suppressive function of type 3 ILCs. J Exp Med 2017; 214:2331-2347. [PMID: 28698286 PMCID: PMC5551572 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20162031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nussbaum et al. found that tumor suppression through innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) cannot be predicted solely based on the ILC phenotype and lineage but that their immune properties are shaped both by their ontogeny and by the tissue microenvironment they reside in. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) have been classified into “functional subsets” according to their transcription factor and cytokine profiles. Although cytokines, such as IL-12 and IL-23, have been shown to shape plasticity of ILCs, little is known about how the tissue microenvironment influences the plasticity, phenotype, and function of these cells. Here, we show clearly demarcated tissue specifications of Rorc-dependent ILCs across lymphoid and nonlymphoid organs. Although intestinal Rorc fate map–positive (Rorcfm+) ILCs show a clear ILC3 phenotype, lymphoid tissue–derived Rorcfm+ ILCs acquire an natural killer (NK) cell/ILC1-like phenotype. By adoptively transferring Rorcfm+ ILCs into recipient mice, we show that ILCs distribute among various organs and phenotypically adapt to the tissue environment they invade. When investigating their functional properties, we found that only lymphoid-tissue resident Rorcfm+ ILCs can suppress tumor growth, whereas intestinal Rorcfm− ILC1s or NK cells fail to inhibit tumor progression. We thus propose that the tissue microenvironment, combined with ontogeny, provides the specific function, whereas the phenotype is insufficient to predict the functional properties of ILCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Nussbaum
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sara H Burkhard
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Isabel Ohs
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Florian Mair
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph S N Klose
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene and Research Centre of Immunology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Sebastian J Arnold
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Diefenbach
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene and Research Centre of Immunology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Sonia Tugues
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Burkhard Becher
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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107
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Dadi S, Li MO. Tissue-resident lymphocytes: sentinel of the transformed tissue. J Immunother Cancer 2017; 5:41. [PMID: 28515941 PMCID: PMC5433173 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-017-0244-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor cells can be detected and cleared by lymphocytes in a process termed cancer immunosurveillance. However, the contributing cell types had not been fully characterized. Using oncogene-induced murine models of epithelial cancer, a recent study showed that cell transformation triggers expansion of tissue-resident lymphocytes derived from innate, T cell receptor (TCR) αβ and TCRγδ lineages. These type-1-like innate lymphoid cells (ILC1ls) and type 1 innate-like T cells (ILTC1s) share a gene expression program distinct from those of conventional lymphocytes, and exhibit cytolytic activities against tumor cells. Further deciphering such a tumor-elicited immunosurveillance mechanism may 1 day be harnessed for novel cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saïda Dadi
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Ming O Li
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065 USA
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108
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Mayes K, Elsayed Z, Alhazmi A, Waters M, Alkhatib SG, Roberts M, Song C, Peterson K, Chan V, Ailaney N, Malapati P, Blevins T, Lisnić B, Dumur CI, Landry JW. BPTF inhibits NK cell activity and the abundance of natural cytotoxicity receptor co-ligands. Oncotarget 2017; 8:64344-64357. [PMID: 28969075 PMCID: PMC5610007 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Using syngeneic BALB/c mouse breast cancer models, we show that the chromatin remodeling subunit bromodomain PHD finger transcription factor (BPTF) suppresses natural killer (NK) cell antitumor activity in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In culture, BPTF suppresses direct natural cytotoxicity receptor (NCR) mediated NK cell cytolytic activity to mouse and human cancer cell lines, demonstrating conserved functions. Blocking mouse NCR1 in vivo rescues BPTF KD tumor weights, demonstrating its importance for the control of tumor growth. We discovered that BPTF occupies heparanase (Hpse) regulatory elements, activating its expression. Increased heparanase activity results in reduced cell surface abundance of the NCR co-ligands: heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). Using gain and loss of function approaches we show that elevated heparanase levels suppress NK cell cytolytic activity to tumor cells in culture. These results suggest that BPTF activates heparanase expression, which in turn reduces cell surface HSPGs and NCR co-ligands, inhibiting NK cell activity. Furthermore, gene expression data from human breast cancer tumors shows that elevated BPTF expression correlates with reduced antitumor immune cell signatures, supporting conserved roles for BPTF in suppressing antitumor immunity. Conditional BPTF depletion in established mouse breast tumors enhances antitumor immunity, suggesting that inhibiting BPTF could provide a novel immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly Mayes
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Zeinab Elsayed
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Aiman Alhazmi
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Michael Waters
- The Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Suehyb G Alkhatib
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Mark Roberts
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Carolyn Song
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Kristen Peterson
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Vivian Chan
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Nikhil Ailaney
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Pumoli Malapati
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Tana Blevins
- The Department of Pathology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Berislav Lisnić
- The Center for Proteomics and Department for Histology and Embryology, University of Rijeka, Faculty of Medicine, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Catherine I Dumur
- The Department of Pathology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
| | - Joseph W Landry
- The Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute of Molecular Medicine, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
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109
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Beaman KD, Dambaeva S, Katara GK, Kulshrestha A, Gilman-Sachs A. The immune response in pregnancy and in cancer is active and supportive of placental and tumor cell growth not their destruction. Gynecol Oncol 2017; 145:476-480. [PMID: 28477880 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygyno.2017.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 04/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
While many investigators have described the biochemical and physiological similarities between tumor cells and trophoblast cells, in this discourse we will compare primarily their leucocytes, which constitute a large portion of the tumor and its microenvironment as well as the placenta and its microenvironment. There is a remarkable similarity between the cells that support placental growth and development and tumor growth and development. In many cases over half of the cells present in the tumor and the placenta are non-tumor or nontrophoblast cells, immune cells. Most of these immune cells are prevented from attacking the fetal derived placental cells and the self-derived tumor cells. Nevertheless, these leucocytes, in our opinion, are very active and support tumor and placental cell growth through the production of growth factors and angiogenic factors. These cells do this by activating the portion of the immune response which initiates and helps control tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth D Beaman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.
| | - Svetlana Dambaeva
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Gajendra K Katara
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Arpita Kulshrestha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Alice Gilman-Sachs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
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110
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Plastic Heterogeneity of Innate Lymphoid Cells in Cancer. Trends Cancer 2017; 3:326-335. [PMID: 28718410 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) fulfill important protective and reparative functions, and have thus been implicated in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Dysregulation of their activation is associated with several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. The current literature on the role of ILCs in cancer is limited and our knowledge is therefore incomplete. Indeed, ILCs have been separately associated with tumor-promoting as well as tumor-suppressing activities, raising the need to understand the mechanisms by which these cells regulate tumor growth and progression toward a rational design of therapeutic approaches. We focus here on the heterogeneity of ILCs and discuss currently known mechanisms of their plasticity.
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