101
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Identification of critical steps governing the two-component alkanesulfonate monooxygenase catalytic mechanism. Biochemistry 2012; 51:6378-87. [PMID: 22775358 DOI: 10.1021/bi300138d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The alkanesulfonate monooxygenase enzyme (SsuD) catalyzes the oxygenolytic cleavage of a carbon-sulfur bond from sulfonated substrates. A mechanism involving acid-base catalysis has been proposed for the desulfonation mechanism by SsuD. In the proposed mechanism, base catalysis is involved in abstracting a proton from the alkane peroxyflavin intermediate, while acid catalysis is needed for the protonation of the FMNO(-) intermediate. The pH profiles of k(cat) indicate that catalysis by SsuD requires a group with a pK(a) of 6.6 ± 0.2 to be deprotonated and a second group with a pK(a) of 9.5 ± 0.1 to be protonated. The upper pK(a) value was not present in the pH profiles of k(cat)/K(m). Several conserved amino acid residues (His228, His11, His333, Cys54, and Arg226) have been identified as having potential catalytic importance due to the similar spatial arrangements with close structural and functional relatives of SsuD. Substitutions to these amino acid residues were generated, and the pH dependencies were evaluated and compared to wild-type SsuD. Although a histidine residue was previously proposed to be the active site base, the His variants possessed similar steady-state kinetic parameters as wild-type SsuD. Interestingly, R226A and R226K SsuD variants possessed undetectable activity, and there was no detectable formation of the C4a-(hydro)peroxyflavin intermediate for the Arg226 SsuD variants. Guanidinium rescue with the R226A SsuD variant resulted in the recovery of 1.5% of the wild-type SsuD k(cat) value. These results implicate Arg226 playing a critical role in catalysis and provide essential insights into the mechanistic steps that guide the SsuD desulfonation process.
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102
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Zhang ZG, Parra LP, Reetz MT. Protein Engineering of Stereoselective Baeyer-Villiger Monooxygenases. Chemistry 2012; 18:10160-72. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201202163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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103
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Balke K, Kadow M, Mallin H, Sass S, Bornscheuer UT. Discovery, application and protein engineering of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases for organic synthesis. Org Biomol Chem 2012; 10:6249-65. [PMID: 22733152 DOI: 10.1039/c2ob25704a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) are useful enzymes for organic synthesis as they enable the direct and highly regio- and stereoselective oxidation of ketones to esters or lactones simply with molecular oxygen. This contribution covers novel concepts such as searching in protein sequence databases using distinct motifs to discover new Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases as well as high-throughput assays to facilitate protein engineering in order to improve BVMOs with respect to substrate range, enantioselectivity, thermostability and other properties. Recent examples for the application of BVMOs in synthetic organic synthesis illustrate the broad potential of these biocatalysts. Furthermore, methods to facilitate the more efficient use of BVMOs in organic synthesis by applying e.g. improved cofactor regeneration, substrate feed and in situ product removal or immobilization are covered in this perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Balke
- Institute of Biochemistry, Dept of Biotechnology & Enzyme Catalysis, Greifswald University, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17487 Greifswald, Germany
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104
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van Bloois E, Dudek HM, Duetz WA, Fraaije MW. A stepwise approach for the reproducible optimization of PAMO expression in Escherichia coli for whole-cell biocatalysis. BMC Biotechnol 2012; 12:31. [PMID: 22720747 PMCID: PMC3404926 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6750-12-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) represent a group of enzymes of considerable biotechnological relevance as illustrated by their growing use as biocatalyst in a variety of synthetic applications. However, due to their increased use the reproducible expression of BVMOs and other biotechnologically relevant enzymes has become a pressing matter while knowledge about the factors governing their reproducible expression is scattered. Results Here, we have used phenylacetone monooxygenase (PAMO) from Thermobifida fusca, a prototype Type I BVMO, as a model enzyme to develop a stepwise strategy to optimize the biotransformation performance of recombinant E. coli expressing PAMO in 96-well microtiter plates in a reproducible fashion. Using this system, the best expression conditions of PAMO were investigated first, including different host strains, temperature as well as time and induction period for PAMO expression. This optimized system was used next to improve biotransformation conditions, the PAMO-catalyzed conversion of phenylacetone, by evaluating the best electron donor, substrate concentration, and the temperature and length of biotransformation. Combining all optimized parameters resulted in a more than four-fold enhancement of the biocatalytic performance and, importantly, this was highly reproducible as indicated by the relative standard deviation of 1% for non-washed cells and 3% for washed cells. Furthermore, the optimized procedure was successfully adapted for activity-based mutant screening. Conclusions Our optimized procedure, which provides a comprehensive overview of the key factors influencing the reproducible expression and performance of a biocatalyst, is expected to form a rational basis for the optimization of miniaturized biotransformations and for the design of novel activity-based screening procedures suitable for BVMOs and other NAD(P)H-dependent enzymes as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin van Bloois
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
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105
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Franceschini S, van Beek HL, Pennetta A, Martinoli C, Fraaije MW, Mattevi A. Exploring the structural basis of substrate preferences in Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases: insight from steroid monooxygenase. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:22626-34. [PMID: 22605340 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.372177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Steroid monooxygenase (STMO) from Rhodococcus rhodochrous catalyzes the Baeyer-Villiger conversion of progesterone into progesterone acetate using FAD as prosthetic group and NADPH as reducing cofactor. The enzyme shares high sequence similarity with well characterized Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases, including phenylacetone monooxygenase and cyclohexanone monooxygenase. The comparative biochemical and structural analysis of STMO can be particularly insightful with regard to the understanding of the substrate-specificity properties of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases that are emerging as promising tools in biocatalytic applications and as targets for prodrug activation. The crystal structures of STMO in the native, NADP(+)-bound, and two mutant forms reveal structural details on this microbial steroid-degrading enzyme. The binding of the nicotinamide ring of NADP(+) is shifted with respect to the flavin compared with that observed in other monooxygenases of the same class. This finding fully supports the idea that NADP(H) adopts various positions during the catalytic cycle to perform its multiple functions in catalysis. The active site closely resembles that of phenylacetone monooxygenase. This observation led us to discover that STMO is capable of acting also on phenylacetone, which implies an impressive level of substrate promiscuity. The investigation of six mutants that target residues on the surface of the substrate-binding site reveals that enzymatic conversions of both progesterone and phenylacetone are largely insensitive to relatively drastic amino acid changes, with some mutants even displaying enhanced activity on progesterone. These features possibly reflect the fact that these enzymes are continuously evolving to acquire new activities, depending on the emerging availabilities of new compounds in the living environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Franceschini
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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106
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Yachnin BJ, Sprules T, McEvoy MB, Lau PCK, Berghuis AM. The substrate-bound crystal structure of a Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase exhibits a Criegee-like conformation. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:7788-95. [PMID: 22506764 PMCID: PMC3349289 DOI: 10.1021/ja211876p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
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The Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) are
a family of bacterial flavoproteins that catalyze the synthetically
useful Baeyer–Villiger oxidation reaction. This involves the
conversion of ketones into esters or cyclic ketones into lactones
by introducing an oxygen atom adjacent to the carbonyl group. The
BVMOs offer exquisite regio- and enantiospecificity while acting on
a wide range of substrates. They use only NADPH and oxygen as cosubstrates,
and produce only NADP+ and water as byproducts, making
them environmentally attractive for industrial purposes. Here, we
report the first crystal structure of a BVMO, cyclohexanone monooxygenase
(CHMO) from Rhodococcus sp. HI-31 in complex with
its substrate, cyclohexanone, as well as NADP+ and FAD,
to 2.4 Å resolution. This structure shows a drastic rotation
of the NADP+ cofactor in comparison to previously reported
NADP+-bound structures, as the nicotinamide moiety is no
longer positioned above the flavin ring. Instead, the substrate, cyclohexanone,
is found at this location, in an appropriate position for the formation
of the Criegee intermediate. The rotation of NADP+ permits
the substrate to gain access to the reactive flavin peroxyanion intermediate
while preventing it from diffusing out of the active site. The structure
thus reveals the conformation of the enzyme during the key catalytic
step. CHMO is proposed to undergo a series of conformational changes
to gradually move the substrate from the solvent, via binding in a
solvent excluded pocket that dictates the enzyme’s chemospecificity,
to a location above the flavin–peroxide adduct where catalysis
occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brahm J Yachnin
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Bellini Pavilion, Room 466, Montreal, QC, Canada H3G 0B1
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107
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Leisch H, Shi R, Grosse S, Morley K, Bergeron H, Cygler M, Iwaki H, Hasegawa Y, Lau PCK. Cloning, Baeyer-Villiger biooxidations, and structures of the camphor pathway 2-oxo-Δ(3)-4,5,5-trimethylcyclopentenylacetyl-coenzyme A monooxygenase of Pseudomonas putida ATCC 17453. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:2200-12. [PMID: 22267661 PMCID: PMC3302634 DOI: 10.1128/aem.07694-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A dimeric Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase (BVMO) catalyzing the lactonization of 2-oxo-Δ(3)-4,5,5-trimethylcyclopentenylacetyl-coenzyme A (CoA), a key intermediate in the metabolism of camphor by Pseudomonas putida ATCC 17453, had been initially characterized in 1983 by Ougham and coworkers (H. J. Ougham, D. G. Taylor, and P. W. Trudgill, J. Bacteriol. 153:140-152, 1983). Here we cloned and overexpressed the 2-oxo-Δ(3)-4,5,5-trimethylcyclopentenylacetyl-CoA monooxygenase (OTEMO) in Escherichia coli and determined its three-dimensional structure with bound flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) at a 1.95-Å resolution as well as with bound FAD and NADP(+) at a 2.0-Å resolution. OTEMO represents the first homodimeric type 1 BVMO structure bound to FAD/NADP(+). A comparison of several crystal forms of OTEMO bound to FAD and NADP(+) revealed a conformational plasticity of several loop regions, some of which have been implicated in contributing to the substrate specificity profile of structurally related BVMOs. Substrate specificity studies confirmed that the 2-oxo-Δ(3)-4,5,5-trimethylcyclopentenylacetic acid coenzyme A ester is preferred over the free acid. However, the catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)) favors 2-n-hexyl cyclopentanone (4.3 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1)) as a substrate, although its affinity (K(m) = 32 μM) was lower than that of the CoA-activated substrate (K(m) = 18 μM). In whole-cell biotransformation experiments, OTEMO showed a unique enantiocomplementarity to the action of the prototypical cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) and appeared to be particularly useful for the oxidation of 4-substituted cyclohexanones. Overall, this work extends our understanding of the molecular structure and mechanistic complexity of the type 1 family of BVMOs and expands the catalytic repertoire of one of its original members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Leisch
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rong Shi
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Stephan Grosse
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Krista Morley
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Hélène Bergeron
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Miroslaw Cygler
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Hiroaki Iwaki
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshie Hasegawa
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology and ORDIST, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Peter C. K. Lau
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Departments of Chemistry and Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and FRQNT Centre in Green Chemistry and Catalysis, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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108
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Romero E, Fedkenheuer M, Chocklett SW, Qi J, Oppenheimer M, Sobrado P. Dual role of NADP(H) in the reaction of a flavin dependent N-hydroxylating monooxygenase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2012; 1824:850-7. [PMID: 22465572 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus siderophore A (Af SidA) is a flavin-dependent monooxygenase that catalyzes the hydroxylation of ornithine, producing N(5)-hydroxyornithine. This is the first step in the biosynthesis of hydroxamate-containing siderophores in A. fumigatus. Af SidA is essential for virulence, validating this enzyme as a drug target. Af SidA can accept reducing equivalents from either NADPH or NADH and displays similar kinetic parameters when using either coenzyme. When the enzyme is reduced with NADPH and reacted with molecular oxygen, a C4a-hydroperoxyflavin intermediate is observed. When the enzyme is reduced with NADH, the intermediate is 2-fold less stable. Steady-state kinetic isotope effect values of 3 and 2 were determined for NADPH and NADH, respectively. The difference in the isotope effect values is due to differences in the rate of flavin reduction by these coenzymes. A difference in the binding mode between these coenzymes was observed by monitoring flavin fluorescence. Limited proteolysis studies show that NADP(+), and not NAD(+), protects Af SidA from proteolysis, suggesting that it induces conformational changes upon binding. Together, these results are consistent with NADPH having a role in flavin reduction and in the modulation of conformational changes, which positions NADP(+) to also play a role in stabilization of the C4a-hydroperoxyflavin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvira Romero
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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109
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Willetts A, Joint I, Gilbert JA, Trimble W, Mühling M. Isolation and initial characterization of a novel type of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase activity from a marine microorganism. Microb Biotechnol 2012; 5:549-59. [PMID: 22414193 PMCID: PMC3815331 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-7915.2012.00337.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel type of Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenase (BVMO) has been found in a marine strain of Stenotrophomonas maltophila strain PML168 that was isolated from a temperate intertidal zone. The enzyme is able to use NADH as the source of reducing power necessary to accept the atom of diatomic oxygen not incorporated into the oxyfunctionalized substrate. Growth studies have establish that the enzyme is inducible, appears to serve a catabolic role, and is specifically induced by one or more unidentified components of seawater as well as various anthropogenic xenobiotic compounds. A blast search of the primary sequence of the enzyme, recovered from the genomic sequence of the isolate, has placed this atypical BVMO in the context of the several hundred known members of the flavoprotein monooxygenase superfamily. A particular feature of this BVMO lies in its truncated C‐terminal domain, which results in a relatively small protein (357 amino acids; 38.4 kDa). In addition, metagenomic screening has been conducted on DNA recovered from an extensive range of marine environmental samples to gauge the relative abundance and distribution of similar enzymes within the global marine microbial community. Although low, abundance was detected in samples from many marine provinces, confirming the potential for biodiscovery in marine microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Willetts
- Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, The Hoe, Plymouth, UK.
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110
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Polyak I, Reetz MT, Thiel W. Quantum Mechanical/Molecular Mechanical Study on the Mechanism of the Enzymatic Baeyer–Villiger Reaction. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:2732-41. [DOI: 10.1021/ja2103839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Iakov Polyak
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1,
D-45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1,
D-45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
- Fachbereich Chemie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse,
D-35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Walter Thiel
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1,
D-45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
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111
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Riebel A, Dudek HM, de Gonzalo G, Stepniak P, Rychlewski L, Fraaije MW. Expanding the set of rhodococcal Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases by high-throughput cloning, expression and substrate screening. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 95:1479-89. [PMID: 22218769 PMCID: PMC3427485 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3823-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2011] [Revised: 12/01/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To expand the available set of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs), we have created expression constructs for producing 22 Type I BVMOs that are present in the genome of Rhodococcus jostii RHA1. Each BVMO has been probed with a large panel of potential substrates. Except for testing their substrate acceptance, also the enantioselectivity of some selected BVMOs was studied. The results provide insight into the biocatalytic potential of this collection of BVMOs and expand the biocatalytic repertoire known for BVMOs. This study also sheds light on the catalytic capacity of this large set of BVMOs that is present in this specific actinomycete. Furthermore, a comparative sequence analysis revealed a new BVMO-typifying sequence motif. This motif represents a useful tool for effective future genome mining efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Riebel
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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112
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van Beek HL, Gonzalo GD, Fraaije MW. Blending Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases: using a robust BVMO as a scaffold for creating chimeric enzymes with novel catalytic properties. Chem Commun (Camb) 2012; 48:3288-90. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cc17656d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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113
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Dudek HM, de Gonzalo G, Torres Pazmiño DE, Stępniak P, Wyrwicz LS, Rychlewski L, Fraaije MW. Mapping the substrate binding site of phenylacetone monooxygenase from Thermobifida fusca by mutational analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 77:5730-8. [PMID: 21724896 PMCID: PMC3165276 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00687-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2011] [Accepted: 06/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases catalyze oxidations that are of interest for biocatalytic applications. Among these enzymes, phenylacetone monooxygenase (PAMO) from Thermobifida fusca is the only protein showing remarkable stability. While related enzymes often present a broad substrate scope, PAMO accepts only a limited number of substrates. Due to the absence of a substrate in the elucidated crystal structure of PAMO, the substrate binding site of this protein has not yet been defined. In this study, a structural model of cyclopentanone monooxygenase, which acts on a broad range of compounds, has been prepared and compared with the structure of PAMO. This revealed 15 amino acid positions in the active site of PAMO that may account for its relatively narrow substrate specificity. We designed and analyzed 30 single and multiple mutants in order to verify the role of these positions. Extensive substrate screening revealed several mutants that displayed increased activity and altered regio- or enantioselectivity in Baeyer-Villiger reactions and sulfoxidations. Further substrate profiling resulted in the identification of mutants with improved catalytic properties toward synthetically attractive compounds. Moreover, the thermostability of the mutants was not compromised in comparison to that of the wild-type enzyme. Our data demonstrate that the positions identified within the active site of PAMO, namely, V54, I67, Q152, and A435, contribute to the substrate specificity of this enzyme. These findings will aid in more dedicated and effective redesign of PAMO and related monooxygenases toward an expanded substrate scope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna M. Dudek
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gonzalo de Gonzalo
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel E. Torres Pazmiño
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Piotr Stępniak
- Bioinfobank Institute, Limanowskiego 24A, 60-744 Poznań, Poland
| | - Lucjan S. Wyrwicz
- Bioinfobank Institute, Limanowskiego 24A, 60-744 Poznań, Poland
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Systems Biology, M. Skłodowska-Curie Cancer Centre and Institute of Oncology, WK Roentgena 5, 02-781 Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Marco W. Fraaije
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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