101
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Salinas-Castillo A, Pastor I, Mallavia R, Mateo CR. Immobilization of a trienzymatic system in a sol–gel matrix: A new fluorescent biosensor for xanthine. Biosens Bioelectron 2008; 24:1059-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2008.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2008] [Revised: 07/18/2008] [Accepted: 07/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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102
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Shchipunov YA, Krekoten’ AV, Petukhova MV. Luminescent nanocomposite synthesized by sol-gel method in micellar solution of alkyl-polyglycoside with solubilized luminol. COLLOID JOURNAL 2008. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061933x08060185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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103
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Ye F, Collinson MM, Higgins DA. What can be learned from single molecule spectroscopy? Applications to sol-gel-derived silica materials. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2008; 11:66-82. [PMID: 19081909 DOI: 10.1039/b812924j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Single molecule spectroscopic methods are now being widely employed to probe the nanometer scale properties of sol-gel-derived silica materials. This article reviews a subset of the recent literature in this area and provides salient examples of the new information that can be obtained. The materials covered include inorganic and organically-modified silica, along with surfactant-templated mesoporous materials. Studies of molecule-matrix interactions based on ionic, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions are reviewed, highlighting the impacts of these interactions on mass transport phenomena. Quantitative investigations of molecular diffusion by single molecule tracking and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy are also covered, focusing on the characterization of anisotropic and hindered diffusion in mesoporous systems. Single molecule polarity studies are described and the new information that can be obtained from the resulting inhomogeneous distributions is discussed. Likewise, single molecule studies of silica acidity properties are reviewed, including observation of nanoscale buffering phenomena due to the chemistry of surface silanols. Finally, related single nanoparticle studies of macroporous silicas are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangmao Ye
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, KS, 66506, Manhattan, USA
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104
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Pastor I, Prieto M, Mateo CR. Effect of Sol−Gel Confinement on the Structural Dynamics of the Enzyme Bovine Cu,Zn Superoxide Dismutase. J Phys Chem B 2008; 112:15021-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jp805368s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Pastor
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, 03202-Elche, Spain, and Centro de Química-Física Molecular and IN- Institute of Nanosciences and Nanotechnology, Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais, P-1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Manuel Prieto
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, 03202-Elche, Spain, and Centro de Química-Física Molecular and IN- Institute of Nanosciences and Nanotechnology, Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais, P-1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - C. Reyes Mateo
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, 03202-Elche, Spain, and Centro de Química-Física Molecular and IN- Institute of Nanosciences and Nanotechnology, Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais, P-1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
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105
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Dickerson MB, Sandhage KH, Naik RR. Protein- and Peptide-Directed Syntheses of Inorganic Materials. Chem Rev 2008; 108:4935-78. [PMID: 18973389 DOI: 10.1021/cr8002328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 650] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B. Dickerson
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433-7702; School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 771 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245; and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245
| | - Kenneth H. Sandhage
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433-7702; School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 771 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245; and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245
| | - Rajesh R. Naik
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433-7702; School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 771 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245; and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245
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106
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Betancor L, Luckarift HR. Bioinspired enzyme encapsulation for biocatalysis. Trends Biotechnol 2008; 26:566-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 319] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2008] [Revised: 06/23/2008] [Accepted: 06/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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107
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Vazquez-Figueroa E, Yeh V, Broering JM, Chaparro-Riggers JF, Bommarius AS. Thermostable variants constructed via the structure-guided consensus method also show increased stability in salts solutions and homogeneous aqueous-organic media. Protein Eng Des Sel 2008; 21:673-80. [PMID: 18799474 DOI: 10.1093/protein/gzn048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzyme instability is a major factor preventing widespread adoption of enzymes for catalysis. Stability at high temperatures and in the presence of high salt concentrations and organic solvents would allow enzymes to be employed for transformations of compounds not readily soluble in low temperature or in purely aqueous systems. Furthermore, many redox enzymes require costly cofactors for function and consequently a robust cofactor regeneration system. In this work, we demonstrate how thermostable variants developed via an amino acid sequence-based consensus method also showed improved stability in solutions with high concentrations of kosmotropic and chaotropic salts and water-miscible organic solvents. This is invaluable to protein engineers since deactivation in salt solutions and organic solvents is not well understood, rendering a priori design of enzyme stability in these media difficult. Variants of glucose 1-dehydrogenase (GDH) were studied in solutions of different salts along the Hofmeister series and in the presence of varying amounts of miscible organic solvent. Only the most stable variants showed little deactivation dependence on salt-type and salt concentration. Kinetic stability, expressed by the deactivation rate constant k(d,obs), did not always correlate with thermodynamic stability of variants, as measured by melting temperature T(m). However, a strong correlation (R(2) > 0.95) between temperature stability and organic solvent stability was found when plotting T(50)(60) versus C(50)(60) values. All GDH variants retained stability in homogeneous aqueous-organic solvents with >80% v/v of organic solvent.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Vazquez-Figueroa
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Atlanta, GA 30332-0363, USA
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108
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Martínez-Tomé MJ, Esquembre R, Mallavia R, Mateo CR. Immobilization and Characterization of 2,3-diaminonaphthalene/cyclodextrin Complexes in a Sol–Gel Matrix: A New Fluorimetric Sensor for Nitrite. J Fluoresc 2008; 19:119-25. [DOI: 10.1007/s10895-008-0393-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2008] [Accepted: 06/20/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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109
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Effects of relative humidity on enzyme activity immobilized in sol–gel-derived silica nanocomposites. Enzyme Microb Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2008.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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110
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FERNANDEZ A, CAVA D, OCIO M, LAGARON J. Perspectives for biocatalysts in food packaging. Trends Food Sci Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2007.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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111
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Copello GJ, De Marzi MC, Desimone MF, Malchiodi EL, Díaz LE. Antibody detection employing sol-gel immobilized parasites. J Immunol Methods 2008; 335:65-70. [PMID: 18448116 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2008.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2007] [Revised: 02/13/2008] [Accepted: 02/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and immunoperoxidase assay (IPA) are useful diagnostic techniques for specific antibody detection for different diseases. Both involve several alternatives for immobilization of cells, such as solvent or heat fixation. Non-covalent immobilization implies rigorous storage conditions at -20 degrees C to preserve the slides, and usually numerous cells are detached during the washing steps, which can lead to inconsistencies in the results. Sol-gel chemistry is usually used for coating different materials because of the mild conditions of the polymerization reaction and the ability to introduce functional groups to a wide variety of surfaces. We have developed a novel procedure for the attachment of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes and Leishmania guyanensis promastigotes to a silicon oxide polymer covered glass surface. The film was prepared using standard microscope slides with tetraethoxysilane and 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane as polymeric precursors. When acetone was used as the major coating solvent, the IFA showed the fluorescence of the attached parasites without matrix background interference. Similar results were observed when the IPA was evaluated. The sensitivity and specificity of the sol-gel immobilized parasite slides were comparable with the heat fixation technique. The performance of the coated slides was maintained for at least 2 months at 4 degrees C storage temperature. This immobilization method does not affect the molecular epitopes of the attached cells. Thus, homogeneous, ready to use, long lasting coated slides were obtained, which are appropriate for field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo J Copello
- Cátedra de Química Analítica Instrumental, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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112
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Nile Red Synchronous Scan Fluorescence Spectroscopy to Follow Matrix Modification in Sol–Gel Derived Media and its Effect on the Peroxidase Activity of cytochrome c. J Fluoresc 2008; 18:1083-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s10895-008-0353-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2007] [Accepted: 02/19/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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113
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Batalla P, Fuentes M, Grazu V, Mateo C, Fernandez-Lafuente R, Guisan JM. Oriented Covalent Immobilization of Antibodies on Physically Inert and Hydrophilic Support Surfaces through Their Glycosidic Chains. Biomacromolecules 2008; 9:719-23. [DOI: 10.1021/bm7010906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Batalla
- Departamento de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Fuentes
- Departamento de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Valeria Grazu
- Departamento de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Cesar Mateo
- Departamento de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Roberto Fernandez-Lafuente
- Departamento de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M. Guisan
- Departamento de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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114
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Vriezema D, Garcia P, Sancho Oltra N, Hatzakis N, Kuiper S, Nolte R, Rowan A, van Hest J. Positional Assembly of Enzymes in Polymersome Nanoreactors for Cascade Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200701125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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115
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Vriezema DM, Garcia PML, Sancho Oltra N, Hatzakis NS, Kuiper SM, Nolte RJM, Rowan AE, van Hest JCM. Positional Assembly of Enzymes in Polymersome Nanoreactors for Cascade Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007; 46:7378-82. [PMID: 17705203 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200701125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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116
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Pastor I, Ferrer ML, Lillo MP, Gómez J, Mateo CR. Structure and Dynamics of Lysozyme Encapsulated in a Silica Sol−Gel Matrix. J Phys Chem B 2007; 111:11603-10. [PMID: 17850137 DOI: 10.1021/jp074790b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Proteins entrapped in sol-gel matrices have been extensively studied during the last 15 years, showing that most of them can be encapsulated with retention of their native structure and functionality and with enhanced stability. However, relatively little is known about the structural and dynamical details of the biomolecule-matrix interactions. To achieve this goal, the model protein hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) has been entrapped in sol-gel matrices prepared from tetraethyl orthosilicate through an alcohol-free sol-gel route, and the photophysical properties of its fluorescent tryptophans have been determined using both steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence techniques. By combining fluorescence spectra, quenching experiments, lifetimes, and time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy measurements, we have obtained information on the structure, dynamics, and solvation properties of the entrapped protein. Our results show that the environment of HEWL within the silica pore as well as its internal dynamics is similar to that in aqueous solution, except that the protein showed no or, depending on conditions, very much slower global motion but retained its internal angularly restricted (hindered) segmental rotation upon entrapment. The experiments carried out at different experimental conditions indicate that, below the isoelectric point of the protein, a strong electrostatic interaction is established between the protein molecule and the negatively charged sol-gel walls, which is ultimately responsible for the total arrest of the overall rotation of the protein, but without significant effect upon its segmental rotational relaxation. The electrostatic nature of the interaction is clearly established since either reducing the positive charge of the protein (by increasing the pH toward its isoelectric point) or increasing the ionic strength of the solution (shielding against the attractive interaction) leads to a situation in which the protein freely rotates within the matrix pore, albeit an order of magnitude more slowly than that in free solution under similar macroscopic solution conditions, and still retains its segmental rotational properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Pastor
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel HernAndez, 03202-Elche, Spain
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117
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Brennan JD. Biofriendly sol-gel processing for the entrapment of soluble and membrane-bound proteins: toward novel solid-phase assays for high-throughput screening. Acc Chem Res 2007; 40:827-35. [PMID: 17458927 DOI: 10.1021/ar6000268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The last decade has seen a revolution in the area of sol-gel-derived biomaterials since the demonstration that these materials can be used to encapsulate biological species such as enzymes, antibodies, and other proteins in a functional state. In particular, recent years have seen tremendous progress in the development of more "protein-friendly" sol-gel processing methods and their use for immobilization of delicate proteins, including key drug targets such as kinases and membrane-bound receptors. The latter example is particularly impressive, given the inherently low stability of membrane receptors and the need to stabilize an amphiphilic bilayer lipid membrane to maintain receptor function. In this Account, we provide an overview of the advances in biofriendly sol-gel processing methods developed in our research group and others and highlight recent accomplishments in the immobilization of both soluble and membrane-bound proteins, with particular emphasis on enzymes and membrane receptors that are drug targets. Emerging applications of sol-gel-entrapped proteins, focusing on the development platforms for high-throughput screening of small molecules, are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Brennan
- Department of Chemistry, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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118
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Yang F, Jiao L, Shen Y, Xu X, Zhang Y, Niu L. Enhanced response induced by polyelectrolyte-functionalized ionic liquid in glucose biosensor based on sol–gel organic–inorganic hybrid material. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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119
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Finocchio E, Macis E, Raiteri R, Busca G. Adsorption of trimethoxysilane and of 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane on silica and on silicon wafers from vapor phase: an IR study. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2007; 23:2505-9. [PMID: 17243745 DOI: 10.1021/la062972b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The interaction of trimethoxysilane (TMS) and of 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTMS) with silica and silicon wafers has been studied by the mean of transmission FTIR spectroscopy. TMS vapor adsorption on silica's silanols results in the formation of Si-O-Si bonds at room temperature, mainly through the elimination of one methanol molecule per TMS molecule. Similarly, MPTMS vapor reacts with the surface through "hydroxolysis" of one of Si-O-CH3 bonds, and most of the molecules have their SH group free. The same species is formed over the silicon wafer surface. On the other side, deposition of liquid MPTMS over silicon surface leads to the detection of spectral features characterizing a condensed layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Finocchio
- Laboratorio di Chimica delle Superfici e Catalisi Industriale, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica e di Processo, Università di Genova, Piazzale Kennedy, I-16129 Genoa, Italy
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120
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Girelli AM, Mattei E, Messina A. Phenols removal by immobilized tyrosinase reactor in on-line high performance liquid chromatography. Anal Chim Acta 2006; 580:271-7. [PMID: 17723784 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.07.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2006] [Revised: 07/21/2006] [Accepted: 07/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The development of an immobilized enzyme reactor (IMER) based on tyrosinase immobilized on aminopropyl-controlled pore glass (AP-CPG) for the removal of phenols from model aqueous solutions was reported. To elucidate the influence of the substrate nature, the apparent (V'max, K'm) and the inherent (Vmax, Km) Michaelis-Menten constants were determined by Lineweaver-Burk method and the external diffusional contributions on measured enzyme activities were removed by a graphical method. The dephenolization process was realized by recycling the phenol solutions through the bioreactor connected to a chitosan trap in order to remove the colored quinone-type products of the tyrosinase reactions. The results indicated that a complete removal of phenol derivatives in the range of 150-300 min, with the exception of 60% removal for phenol reached in 400 min, was obtained. The observed sequence: cresol > 4-methylcathecol > catechol > 4-Cl-phenol phenol was in accordance to the V'max/K'm values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Girelli
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy.
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121
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Tripathi VS, Kandimalla VB, Ju H. Amperometric biosensor for hydrogen peroxide based on ferrocene-bovine serum albumin and multiwall carbon nanotube modified ormosil composite. Biosens Bioelectron 2006; 21:1529-35. [PMID: 16099155 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2005.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2005] [Revised: 07/01/2005] [Accepted: 07/06/2005] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A novel amperometric biosensor for hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) was developed by entrapping horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in a new ormosil composite doped with ferrocene monocarboxylic acid-bovine serum albumin conjugate and multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs). The ormosil was prepared using 3-(aminopropyl)triethoxysilane and 2-(3,4 epoxycyclohexyl)-ethyltrimethoxy silane as monomers. The encapsulated conjugate showed excellent electrochemistry and acted as an electron transfer mediator. The presence of MWNTs improved the conductivity of the composite film. This matrix showed a biocompatible microenvironment for retaining the native activity of the entrapped HRP and a very low mass transport barrier to the substrate, which provided a fast amperometric response to H(2)O(2). The proposed H(2)O(2) biosensor exhibited a linear range of 0.02-4.0 mM with a detection limit of 5.0 microM (S/N = 3) and a K(M)(app) value of 2.0 mM. It could be used for flow injection analysis of hydrogen peroxide with a liner range from 0.02 to 4.5 mM, sensitivity of 0.042 microA/mM and analytical time of 20 s per sample. This biosensor possessed good analytical performance and storage stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Shyam Tripathi
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science (Education Ministry of China), Department of Chemistry, Nanjing University
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