101
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Zhou Y, Zheng B, Ye L, Zhang H, Zhu S, Zheng X, Xia Q, He Z, Wang Q, Xiao J, Xu H. Retinoic Acid Prevents Disruption of Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier by Inducing Autophagic Flux After Spinal Cord Injury. Neurochem Res 2015; 41:813-25. [PMID: 26582233 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-015-1756-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) induces the disruption of the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB), which leads to infiltration of blood cells, inflammatory responses and neuronal cell death, with subsequent development of spinal cord secondary damage. Recent reports pointed to an important role of retinoic acid (RA), the active metabolite of the vitamin A, in the induction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) during human and mouse development, however, it is unknown whether RA plays a role in maintaining BSCB integrity under the pathological conditions such as SCI. In this study, we investigated the BSCB protective role of RA both in vivo and in vitro and demonstrated that autophagy are involved in the BSCB protective effect of RA. Our data show that RA attenuated BSCB permeability and also attenuated the loss of tight junction molecules such as P120, β-catenin, Occludin and Claudin5 after injury in vivo as well as in brain microvascular endothelial cells. In addition, RA administration improved functional recovery of the rat model of trauma. We also found that RA could significantly increase the expression of LC3-II and decrease the expression of p62 both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, combining RA with the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (CQ) partially abolished its protective effect on the BSCB and exacerbated the loss of tight junctions. Together, our studies indicate that RA improved functional recovery in part by the prevention of BSCB disruption via the activation of autophagic flux after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Zhou
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Binbin Zheng
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Libing Ye
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Hongyu Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Sipin Zhu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Xiaomeng Zheng
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Qinghai Xia
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Zili He
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Qingqing Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Jian Xiao
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China.
| | - Huazi Xu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.
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102
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MMP-3 secreted from endothelial cells of blood vessels after spinal cord injury activates microglia, leading to oligodendrocyte cell death. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 82:141-151. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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103
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Na W, Lee JY, Kim WS, Yune TY, Ju BG. 17β-Estradiol Ameliorates Tight Junction Disruption via Repression of MMP Transcription. Mol Endocrinol 2015; 29:1347-61. [PMID: 26168035 DOI: 10.1210/me.2015-1124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) or blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) formed by capillary endothelial cells provides a physical wall between the central nervous system (CNS) and circulating blood with highly selective permeability. BBB/BSCB disruption by activation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) has been shown to result in further neurological damage after CNS injury. Recently it has been discovered that estrogen attenuates BBB/BSCB disruption in in vitro and in vivo models. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the estrogen-mediated attenuation of BBB/BSCB disruption has not been elucidated fully. In the present study, we found that 17β-estradiol (E2) suppresses nuclear factor-κB-dependent MMP-1b, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-9, MMP-10, and MMP-13 gene activation in microvessel endothelial bEnd.3 cells subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation/reperfusion injury. E2 induced the recruitment of ERα and nuclear receptor corepressor to the nuclear factor-κB binding site on the MMPs' gene promoters. Consistently, ER antagonist ICI 182.780 showed opposite effects of E2. We further found that E2 attenuates tight junction disruption through the decreased degradation of tight junction proteins in bEnd.3 cells subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation-reperfusion injury. In addition, E2 suppressed the up-regulation of MMP expression, leading to a decreased BSCB disruption in the injured spinal cord. In conclusion, we discovered the molecular mechanism underlying the protective role of estrogenin BBB/BSCB disruption using an in vitro and in vivo model. Our study suggests that estrogens may provide a potential therapeutic intervention for preserving BBB/BSCB integrity after CNS injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonho Na
- Department of Life Science (W.N., W.-S.K., B.-G.J.), Sogang University, Seoul 121-742, Korea; and Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center (J.Y.L., T.Y.Y.) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (T.Y.Y.), School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Jee Youn Lee
- Department of Life Science (W.N., W.-S.K., B.-G.J.), Sogang University, Seoul 121-742, Korea; and Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center (J.Y.L., T.Y.Y.) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (T.Y.Y.), School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Won-Sun Kim
- Department of Life Science (W.N., W.-S.K., B.-G.J.), Sogang University, Seoul 121-742, Korea; and Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center (J.Y.L., T.Y.Y.) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (T.Y.Y.), School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Tae Young Yune
- Department of Life Science (W.N., W.-S.K., B.-G.J.), Sogang University, Seoul 121-742, Korea; and Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center (J.Y.L., T.Y.Y.) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (T.Y.Y.), School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Bong-Gun Ju
- Department of Life Science (W.N., W.-S.K., B.-G.J.), Sogang University, Seoul 121-742, Korea; and Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center (J.Y.L., T.Y.Y.) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (T.Y.Y.), School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
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104
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Lee JY, Choi HY, Na WH, Ju BG, Yune TY. 17β-estradiol inhibits MMP-9 and SUR1/TrpM4 expression and activation and thereby attenuates BSCB disruption/hemorrhage after spinal cord injury in male rats. Endocrinology 2015; 156:1838-50. [PMID: 25763638 DOI: 10.1210/en.2014-1832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption and progressive hemorrhage after spinal cord injury (SCI) lead to secondary injury and the subsequent apoptosis and/or necrosis of neuron and glia, causing permanent neurological deficits. In this study, we examined the effect of 17β-estradiol (E2) on BSCB breakdown and hemorrhage as well as subsequent inflammation after SCI. After a moderate contusion injury at the 9th thoracic segment of spinal cord, E2 (300 μg/kg) was administered by iv injection immediately after SCI, and the same dose of E2 was then administered 6 and 24 hours after injury. Our data show that E2 attenuated BSCB permeability and hemorrhage and reduced the infiltration of neutrophils and macorphages after SCI. Consistent with this finding, the expression of inflammatory mediators was significantly reduced by E2. Furthermore, E2 treatment significantly inhibited the expression of sulfonylurea receptor 1 and transient receptor potential melastatin 4 after injury, which are known to mediate hemorrhage at an early stage after SCI. Moreover, the expression and activation of matrix metalloprotease-9 after injury, which is known to disrupt BSCB, and the degradation of tight junction proteins, such as zona occludens-1 and occludin, were significantly inhibited by E2 treatment. Furthermore, the protective effects of E2 on BSCB disruption and functional improvement were abolished by an estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI 182780 (3 mg/kg). Thus, our study provides evidence that the neuroprotective effect of E2 after SCI is, in part, mediated by inhibiting BSCB disruption and hemorrhage through the down-regulation of sulfonylurea receptor 1/transient receptor potential melastatin 4 and matrix metalloprotease-9, which is dependent on estrogen receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Y Lee
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center (J.Y.L., H.Y.C., T.Y.Y.) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (T.Y.Y.), School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 130-701, Korea; and Department of Life Science (W.H.N., B.G.J.), Sogang University, Seoul 121-742, Korea
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105
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Wan W, Cao L, Liu L, Zhang C, Kalionis B, Tai X, Li Y, Xia S. Aβ(1-42) oligomer-induced leakage in an in vitro blood-brain barrier model is associated with up-regulation of RAGE and metalloproteinases, and down-regulation of tight junction scaffold proteins. J Neurochem 2015; 134:382-93. [PMID: 25866188 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence indicates that abnormal deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in the brain is responsible for endothelial cell damage and consequently leads to blood-brain barrier (BBB) leakage. However, the mechanisms underlying BBB disruption are not well described. We employed an monolayer BBB model comprising bEnd.3 cell and found that BBB leakage was induced by treatment with Aβ(1-42), and the levels of tight junction (TJ) scaffold proteins (ZO-1, Claudin-5, and Occludin) were decreased. Through comparisons of the effects of the different components of Aβ(1-42), including monomer (Aβ(1-42)-Mono), oligomer (Aβ(1-42)-Oligo), and fibril (Aβ(1-42)-Fibril), our data confirmed that Aβ(1-42)-Oligo is likely to be the most important damage factor that results in TJ damage and BBB leakage in Alzheimer's disease. We found that the incubation of bEnd.3 cells with Aβ(1-42) significantly up-regulated the level of receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE). Co-incubation of a polyclonal antibody to RAGE and Aβ(1-42)-Oligo in bEnd.3 cells blocked RAGE suppression of Aβ(1-42)-Oligo-induced alterations in TJ scaffold proteins and reversed Aβ(1-42)-Oligo-induced up-regulation of RAGE, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, and MMP-9. Furthermore, we found that these effects induced by Aβ(1-42)-Oligo treatment were effectively suppressed by knockdown of RAGE using small interfering RNA (siRNA) transfection. We also found that GM 6001, a broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor, partially reversed the Aβ(1-42)-Oligo-induced inhibitor effects in bEnd.3 cells. Thus, these results suggested that RAGE played an important role in Aβ-induced BBB leakage and alterations of TJ scaffold proteins, through a mechanism that involved up-regulation of MMP-2 and MMP-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbin Wan
- Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Institutes of Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lumei Liu
- Geriatrics Department of Chinese Medicine, Huadong Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chunyan Zhang
- Department of Chinese Medicine, Dongfang Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bill Kalionis
- Department of Perinatal Medicine Pregnancy Research Centre and University of Melbourne Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Royal Women's Hospital, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Xiantao Tai
- School of Acupuncture, Massage and Rehabilitation, Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Yaming Li
- Geriatrics Department of Chinese Medicine, Huadong Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shijin Xia
- Shanghai Institute of Geriatrics, Huadong Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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106
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Pathobiology of radiation myelopathy and strategies to mitigate injury. Spinal Cord 2015; 53:574-80. [DOI: 10.1038/sc.2015.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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107
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Lee JY, Kang SR, Yune TY. Fluoxetine prevents oligodendrocyte cell death by inhibiting microglia activation after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:633-44. [PMID: 25366938 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte cell death and axon demyelination after spinal cord injury (SCI) are known to be important secondary injuries contributing to permanent neurological disability. Thus, blocking oligodendrocyte cell death should be considered for therapeutic intervention after SCI. Here, we demonstrated that fluoxetine, an antidepressant drug, alleviates oligodendrocyte cell death by inhibiting microglia activation after SCI. After injury at the T9 level with a Precision Systems and Instrumentation (Lexington, KY) device, fluoxetine (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) was administered once a day for the indicated time points. Immunostaining with CD11b (OX-42) antibody and quantification analysis showed that microglia activation was significantly inhibited by fluoxetine at 5 days after injury. Fluoxetine also significantly inhibited activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38-MAPK) and expression of pro-nerve growth factor (pro-NGF), which is known to mediate oligodendrocyte cell death through the p75 neurotrophin receptor after SCI. In addition, fluoxetine attenuated activation of Ras homolog gene family member A and decreased the level of phosphorylated c-Jun and, ultimately, alleviated caspase-3 activation and significantly reduced cell death of oligodendrocytes at 5 days after SCI. Further, the decrease of myelin basic protein, myelin loss, and axon loss in white matter was also significantly blocked by fluoxetine, as compared to vehicle control. These results suggest that fluoxetine inhibits oligodendrocyte cell death by inhibiting microglia activation and p38-MAPK activation, followed by pro-NGF production after SCI, and provide a potential usage of fluoxetine for a therapeutic agent after acute SCI in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Y Lee
- 1 Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, Kyung Hee University , Seoul, Korea
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108
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Adoptive transfer of M2 macrophages promotes locomotor recovery in adult rats after spinal cord injury. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 45:157-70. [PMID: 25476600 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Classically activated pro-inflammatory (M1) and alternatively activated anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophages populate the local microenvironment after spinal cord injury (SCI). The former type is neurotoxic while the latter has positive effects on neuroregeneration and is less toxic. In addition, while the M1 macrophage response is rapidly induced and sustained, M2 induction is transient. A promising strategy for the repair of SCI is to increase the fraction of M2 cells and prolong their residence time. This study investigated the effect of M2 macrophages induced from bone marrow-derived macrophages on the local microenvironment and their possible role in neuroprotection after SCI. M2 macrophages produced anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-10 and transforming growth factor β and infiltrated into the injured spinal cord, stimulated M2 and helper T (Th)2 cells, and produced high levels of IL-10 and -13 at the site of injury. M2 cell transfer decreased spinal cord lesion volume and resulted in increased myelination of axons and preservation of neurons. This was accompanied by significant locomotor improvement as revealed by Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan locomotor rating scale, grid walk and footprint analyses. These results indicate that M2 adoptive transfer has beneficial effects for the injured spinal cord, in which the increased number of M2 macrophages causes a shift in the immunological response from Th1- to Th2-dominated through the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, which in turn induces the polarization of local microglia and/or macrophages to the M2 subtype, and creates a local microenvironment that is conducive to the rescue of residual myelin and neurons and preservation of neuronal function.
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109
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Guo J, Li Y, Chen Z, He Z, Zhang B, Li Y, Hu J, Han M, Xu Y, Li Y. N-acetylcysteine treatment following spinal cord trauma reduces neural tissue damage and improves locomotor function in mice. Mol Med Rep 2015; 12:37-44. [PMID: 25738883 PMCID: PMC4438879 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2015.3390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Following spinal cord trauma, mitochondrial dysfunction associated with increased oxidative stress is a critical event leading to leukocyte inflammatory responses, neuronal cell death and demyelination, contributing to permanent locomotor and neurological disability. The present study demonstrated that the mitochondrial enhancer N-acetylcysteine (NAC) may restore redox balance via enhancement of mitochondrial respiratory activity following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). In addition, NAC ameliorates oxidative stress-induced neuronal loss, demyelination, leukocyte infiltration and inflammatory mediator expression and improves long-term locomotor function. Furthermore, neuronal survival and neurological recovery are significantly correlated with increased mitochondrial bioenergetics in SCI following treatment with NAC. Therefore, NAC may represent a potential therapeutic agent for preserving mitochondrial dynamics and integrity following traumatic SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Guo
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yiqiao Li
- Central Laboratory, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Zhong Chen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Zhennian He
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yonghuan Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Jianghua Hu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Mingyuan Han
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yuanlin Xu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yongfu Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
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110
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Lee JY, Choi HY, Na WH, Ju BG, Yune TY. Ghrelin inhibits BSCB disruption/hemorrhage by attenuating MMP-9 and SUR1/TrpM4 expression and activation after spinal cord injury. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2014; 1842:2403-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Revised: 09/06/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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111
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Lee JY, Choi HY, Ahn HJ, Ju BG, Yune TY. Matrix metalloproteinase-3 promotes early blood-spinal cord barrier disruption and hemorrhage and impairs long-term neurological recovery after spinal cord injury. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2014; 184:2985-3000. [PMID: 25325922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
After spinal cord injury (SCI), blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) leads to BSCB permeability and blood cell infiltration, contributing to permanent neurological disability. Herein, we report that MMP-3 plays a critical role in BSCB disruption after SCI in mice. MMP-3 was induced in infiltrated neutrophils and blood vessels after SCI, and NF-κB as a transcription factor was involved in MMP-3 expression. BSCB permeability and blood cell infiltration after injury were more reduced in Mmp3 knockout (KO) mice than in wild-type (WT) mice, which was significantly inhibited by Mmp3 siRNA or a general inhibitor of MMPs, N-isobutyl-N-(4-methoxyphenylsulfonyl)glycyl hydroxamic acid. The level of tight junction proteins, such as occludin and zonula occludens-1, which decreased after SCI, was also higher in Mmp3 KO than in WT mice. Exogenously, MMP-3 injection into the normal spinal cord also induced BSCB permeability. Furthermore, MMP-9 activation after injury was mediated by MMP-3 activation. Finally, improved functional recovery was observed in Mmp3 KO mice compared with WT mice after injury. These results demonstrated the role of MMP-3 in BSCB disruption after SCI for the first time and suggest that the regulation of MMP-3 can be considered a therapeutic target to inhibit BSCB disruption and hemorrhage, and thereby enhance functional recovery after acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Youn Lee
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Neurodegeneration Control Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Young Choi
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Neurodegeneration Control Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Jong Ahn
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bong Gun Ju
- Department of Life Science, Sogang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Young Yune
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Neurodegeneration Control Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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112
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Optimization of Evans blue quantitation in limited rat tissue samples. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6588. [PMID: 25300427 PMCID: PMC4192616 DOI: 10.1038/srep06588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Evans blue dye (EBD) is an inert tracer that measures plasma volume in human subjects and vascular permeability in animal models. Quantitation of EBD can be difficult when dye concentration in the sample is limited, such as when extravasated dye is measured in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) intact brain. The procedure described here used a very small volume (30 µl) per sample replicate, which enabled high-throughput measurements of the EBD concentration based on a standard 96-well plate reader. First, ethanol ensured a consistent optic path length in each well and substantially enhanced the sensitivity of EBD fluorescence spectroscopy. Second, trichloroacetic acid (TCA) removed false-positive EBD measurements as a result of biological solutes and partially extracted EBD into the supernatant. Moreover, a 1:2 volume ratio of 50% TCA ([TCA final] = 33.3%) optimally extracted EBD from the rat plasma protein-EBD complex in vitro and in vivo, and 1:2 and 1:3 weight-volume ratios of 50% TCA optimally extracted extravasated EBD from the rat brain and liver, respectively, in vivo. This procedure is particularly useful in the detection of EBD extravasation into the BBB-intact brain, but it can also be applied to detect dye extravasation into tissues where vascular permeability is less limiting.
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113
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Bastien D, Lacroix S. Cytokine pathways regulating glial and leukocyte function after spinal cord and peripheral nerve injury. Exp Neurol 2014; 258:62-77. [PMID: 25017888 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2013] [Revised: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Injury to the nervous system causes the almost immediate release of cytokines by glial cells and neurons. These cytokines orchestrate a complex array of responses leading to microgliosis, immune cell recruitment, astrogliosis, scarring, and the clearance of cellular debris, all steps that affect neuronal survival and repair. This review will focus on cytokines released after spinal cord and peripheral nerve injury and the primary signalling pathways triggered by these inflammatory mediators. Notably, the following cytokine families will be covered: IL-1, TNF, IL-6-like, TGF-β, and IL-10. Whether interfering with cytokine signalling could lead to novel therapies will also be discussed. Finally, the review will address whether manipulating the above-mentioned cytokine families and signalling pathways could exert distinct effects in the injured spinal cord versus peripheral nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Bastien
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec-CHUL, Département de médecine moléculaire, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Steve Lacroix
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec-CHUL, Département de médecine moléculaire, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada..
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114
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Interferon β-secreting mesenchymal stem cells combined with minocycline attenuate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 274:20-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Revised: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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115
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3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) disrupts blood-brain barrier integrity through a mechanism involving P2X7 receptors. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 17:1243-55. [PMID: 24626059 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145714000145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The recreational drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; 'ecstasy') produces a neuro-inflammatory response in rats characterized by an increase in microglial activation and IL-1β levels. The integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is important in preserving the homeostasis of the brain and has been shown to be affected by neuro-inflammatory processes. We aimed to study the effect of a single dose of MDMA on the activity of metalloproteinases (MMPs), expression of extracellular matrix proteins, BBB leakage and the role of the ionotropic purinergic receptor P2X7 (P2X7R) in the changes induced by the drug. Adult male Dark Agouti rats were treated with MDMA (10 mg/kg, i.p.) and killed at several time-points in order to evaluate MMP-9 and MMP-3 activity in the hippocampus and laminin and collagen-IV expression and IgG extravasation in the dentate gyrus. Microglial activation, P2X7R expression and localization were also determined in the dentate gyrus. Separate groups were treated with MDMA and the P2X7R antagonists Brilliant Blue G (BBG; 50 mg/kg, i.p.) or A-438079 (30 mg/kg, i.p.). MDMA increased MMP-3 and MMP-9 activity, reduced laminin and collagen-IV expression and increased IgG immunoreactivity. In addition, MDMA increased microglial activation and P2X7R immunoreactivity in these cells. BBG suppressed the increase in MMP-9 and MMP-3 activity, prevented basal lamina degradation and IgG extravasation into the brain parenchyma. A-438079 also prevented the MDMA-induced reduction in laminin and collagen-IV immunoreactivity. These results indicate that MDMA alters BBB permeability through an early P2X7R-mediated event, which in turn leads to enhancement of MMP-9 and MMP-3 activity and degradation of extracellular matrix.
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Nishimura S, Sasaki T, Shimizu A, Yoshida K, Iwai H, Koya I, Kobayashi Y, Itakura G, Shibata S, Ebise H, Horiuchi K, Kudoh J, Toyama Y, Anderson AJ, Okano H, Nakamura M. Global gene expression analysis following spinal cord injury in non-human primates. Exp Neurol 2014; 261:171-9. [PMID: 24873731 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 05/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition with no established treatment. To better understand the pathology and develop a treatment modality for SCI, an understanding of the physiological changes following SCI at the molecular level is essential. However, studies on SCI have primarily used rodent models, and few studies have examined SCI in non-human primates. In this study, we analyzed the temporal changes in gene expression patterns following SCI in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) using microarray analysis and mRNA deep sequencing. This analysis revealed that, although the sequence of events is comparable between primates and rodents, the inflammatory response following SCI is significantly prolonged and the onset of glial scar formation is temporally delayed in primates compared with rodents. These observations indicate that the optimal time window to treat SCI significantly differs among different species. This study provides the first extensive analysis of gene expression following SCI in non-human primates and will serve as a valuable resource in understanding the pathology of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraya Nishimura
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan; Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Takashi Sasaki
- Department of Dermatology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan; Center for Integrated Medical Research, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Atsushi Shimizu
- Division of Biomedical Information Analysis, Iwate Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1, Nishitokuta, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Iwate 028-3694, Japan.
| | - Kenji Yoshida
- Regenerative & Cellular Medicine Office, Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma Co., Ltd., 3-1-98 Kasugade-naka, Konohana-ku, Osaka 554-0022, Japan.
| | - Hiroki Iwai
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan; Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Ikuko Koya
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Yoshiomi Kobayashi
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Go Itakura
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan; Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Shinsuke Shibata
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Hayao Ebise
- Genomic Science Laboratories, Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma Co., Ltd., 3-1-98 Kasugade-naka, Konohana-ku, Osaka 554-0022, Japan.
| | - Keisuke Horiuchi
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Jun Kudoh
- Laboratory of Gene Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Yoshiaki Toyama
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Aileen J Anderson
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
| | - Hideyuki Okano
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Masaya Nakamura
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
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Luedtke K, Bouchard SM, Woller SA, Funk MK, Aceves M, Hook MA. Assessment of depression in a rodent model of spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:1107-21. [PMID: 24564232 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.3204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite an increased incidence of depression in patients after spinal cord injury (SCI), there is no animal model of depression after SCI. To address this, we used a battery of established tests to assess depression after a rodent contusion injury. Subjects were acclimated to the tasks, and baseline scores were collected before SCI. Testing was conducted on days 9-10 (acute) and 19-20 (chronic) postinjury. To categorize depression, subjects' scores on each behavioral measure were averaged across the acute and chronic stages of injury and subjected to a principal component analysis. This analysis revealed a two-component structure, which explained 72.2% of between-subjects variance. The data were then analyzed with a hierarchical cluster analysis, identifying two clusters that differed significantly on the sucrose preference, open field, social exploration, and burrowing tasks. One cluster (9 of 26 subjects) displayed characteristics of depression. Using these data, a discriminant function analysis was conducted to derive an equation that could classify subjects as "depressed" on days 9-10. The discriminant function was used in a second experiment examining whether the depression-like symptoms could be reversed with the antidepressant, fluoxetine. Fluoxetine significantly decreased immobility in the forced swim test (FST) in depressed subjects identified with the equation. Subjects that were depressed and treated with saline displayed significantly increased immobility on the FST, relative to not depressed, saline-treated controls. These initial experiments validate our tests of depression, generating a powerful model system for further understanding the relationships between molecular changes induced by SCI and the development of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey Luedtke
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M Health Science Center , Bryan, Texas
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Levine JM, Cohen ND, Heller M, Fajt VR, Levine GJ, Kerwin SC, Trivedi AA, Fandel TM, Werb Z, Modestino A, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Efficacy of a metalloproteinase inhibitor in spinal cord injured dogs. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96408. [PMID: 24788791 PMCID: PMC4006832 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase-9 is elevated within the acutely injured murine spinal cord and blockade of this early proteolytic activity with GM6001, a broad-spectrum matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor, results in improved recovery after spinal cord injury. As matrix metalloproteinase-9 is likewise acutely elevated in dogs with naturally occurring spinal cord injuries, we evaluated efficacy of GM6001 solubilized in dimethyl sulfoxide in this second species. Safety and pharmacokinetic studies were conducted in naïve dogs. After confirming safety, subsequent pharmacokinetic analyses demonstrated that a 100 mg/kg subcutaneous dose of GM6001 resulted in plasma concentrations that peaked shortly after administration and were sustained for at least 4 days at levels that produced robust in vitro inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9. A randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled study was then conducted to assess efficacy of GM6001 given within 48 hours of spinal cord injury. Dogs were enrolled in 3 groups: GM6001 dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (n = 35), dimethyl sulfoxide (n = 37), or saline (n = 41). Matrix metalloproteinase activity was increased in the serum of injured dogs and GM6001 reduced this serum protease activity compared to the other two groups. To assess recovery, dogs were a priori stratified into a severely injured group and a mild-to-moderate injured group, using a Modified Frankel Scale. The Texas Spinal Cord Injury Score was then used to assess long-term motor/sensory function. In dogs with severe spinal cord injuries, those treated with saline had a mean motor score of 2 (95% CI 0–4.0) that was significantly (P<0.05; generalized linear model) less than the estimated mean motor score for dogs receiving dimethyl sulfoxide (mean, 5; 95% CI 2.0–8.0) or GM6001 (mean, 5; 95% CI 2.0–8.0). As there was no independent effect of GM6001, we attribute improved neurological outcomes to dimethyl sulfoxide, a pleotropic agent that may target diverse secondary pathogenic events that emerge in the acutely injured cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M. Levine
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Noah D. Cohen
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Michael Heller
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Virginia R. Fajt
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Gwendolyn J. Levine
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Sharon C. Kerwin
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Alpa A. Trivedi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Thomas M. Fandel
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Zena Werb
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Augusta Modestino
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Linda J. Noble-Haeusslein
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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Guo J, Li Y, He Z, Zhang B, Li Y, Hu J, Han M, Xu Y, Li Y, Gu J, Dai B, Chen Z. Targeting endothelin receptors A and B attenuates the inflammatory response and improves locomotor function following spinal cord injury in mice. Int J Mol Med 2014; 34:74-82. [PMID: 24756152 PMCID: PMC4072339 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
After spinal cord injury (SCI), the disruption of blood-spinal cord barrier by activation of the endothelin (ET) system is a critical event leading to leukocyte infiltration, inflammatory response and oxidative stress, contributing to neurological disability. In the present study, we showed that blockade of ET receptor A (ETAR) and/or ET receptor B (ETBR) prevented early inflammatory responses directly via the inhibition of neutrophil and monocyte diapedesis and inflammatory mediator production following traumatic SCI in mice. Long-term neurological improvement, based on a series of tests of locomotor performance, occurred only in the spinal cord‑injured mice following blockade of ETAR and ETBR. We also examined the post‑traumatic changes of the micro-environment within the injured spinal cord of mice following blockade of ET receptors. Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between malondialdehyde and superoxide dismutase in spinal cord‑injured mice treated with vehicle, whereas blockade of ETAR and ETBR reversed the oxidation state imbalance. In addition, hemeoxygenase-1, a protective protease involved in early SCI, was increased in spinal cord‑injured mice following the blockade of ETAR and ETBR, or only ETBR. Matrix metalloproteinase-9, a tissue-destructive protease involved in early damage, was decreased in the injured spinal cord of mice following blockade of ETAR, ETBR or a combination thereof. The findings of the present study therefore suggested an association between ETAR and ETBR in regulating early pathogenesis of SCI and determining the outcomes of long‑term neurological recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Guo
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yiqiao Li
- Central Laboratory, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Zhennian He
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yonghuan Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Jianghua Hu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Mingyuan Han
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yuanlin Xu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Yongfu Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Jie Gu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Bo Dai
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ningbo Beilun People Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315800, P.R. China
| | - Zhong Chen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310000, P.R. China
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Li XQ, Wang J, Fang B, Tan WF, Ma H. Intrathecal antagonism of microglial TLR4 reduces inflammatory damage to blood-spinal cord barrier following ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Mol Brain 2014; 7:28. [PMID: 24751148 PMCID: PMC4022154 DOI: 10.1186/1756-6606-7-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammatory reaction in blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) plays a crucial role in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. It has been shown that microglia could be activated through Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Therefore, we hypothesize that TLR4 is involved in the microglial activation and BSCB disruption after I/R. RESULTS To verify our hypothesis, we analyzed the behavioral data, changes of BSCB permeability, as well as expressions of microglial marker Iba-1 and TLR4 in spinal cord I/R model induced by 14 min aortic occlusion. Double immunostaining reveals that after I/R, Iba-1 immunoreactivity increased gradually 12 h after reperfusion and maintained at a such level throughout 36 h. Such increasing pattern of Iba-1 expression is consistent with the increases in Evan's Blue (EB) extravasation, spinal water content and mechanical allodynia demonstrated by lowed withdrawal threshold to Von Frey filaments. Moreover, double immunostaining suggested that TLR4 was highly expressed in microglia. Intrathecal infusion of minocycline and TAK-242 (TLR4 inhibitor) treatment attenuated I/R-induced allodynia and BSCB leakage. In contrast, LPS induced TLR4 expression aggregated above-mentioned injuries. Furthermore, the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activity has a similar profile as TLR4 activity. It is consisted with the results of NF-κB mRNA and protein expression changes and activation of downstream cytokine, IL-1β. Expectedly, intrathecal infusion of pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), a NF-κB inhibitor, showed similar protective effects as minocycline and TAK-242. In addition, our data show that TLR4 closely involved in I/R-induced inflammatory damage induced neuronal apoptosis. Significantly, neutralizing TLR4 function largely reduced neuronal apoptosis determined by NeuN immunoreactivity in ventral gray matter and increased percentage of double-label cells with cleaved caspase3, whereas LPS reversed these effects. Similarly, inhibitions of microglia and NF-κB with minocycline or PDTC treatment accordingly perform the same protective effects on I/R injury. CONCLUSION The results indicate that compromised BSCB caused by I/R injury lead to spinal microglial activation and TLR4, its membrane-bound receptor, up-regulation, which then initiate neuro-inflammation and neuro-apoptosis via NF-κB/ IL-1β pathway. To inhibit the positive feedback loop of TLR4-microglia-NF-κB/ IL-1β pathway by minocycline, TAK-242 (TLR4 inhibitor) and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC, NF-κB inhibitor) may provide new targets for treating I/R injury in clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qian Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
| | - Bo Fang
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
| | - Wen-Fei Tan
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
| | - Hong Ma
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
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Lee JY, Lee HE, Kang SR, Choi HY, Ryu JH, Yune TY. Fluoxetine inhibits transient global ischemia-induced hippocampal neuronal death and memory impairment by preventing blood–brain barrier disruption. Neuropharmacology 2014; 79:161-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2013] [Revised: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Gupta S, Sharma B. Pharmacological benefit of I(1)-imidazoline receptors activation and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) modulation in experimental Huntington's disease. Brain Res Bull 2014; 102:57-68. [PMID: 24582883 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2014.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2013] [Revised: 02/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by progressive motor dysfunction, emotional disturbances, dementia, weight loss and anxiety. The tremendous amount of research work is required to identify new pharmacological agents of therapeutic utility to combat this condition. This study investigates the effect of selective modulator of I1-imidazoline receptor (moxonidine) as well as nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) (natrium diethyl dithio carbamate trihydrate-NDDCT) on 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA) induced experimental HD condition. 3-NPA was used to induce mitochondrial damage and associated HD symptoms in rats. Anxiety was assessed using Elevated plus maze-EPM and learning-memory was assessed using EPM and Morris water maze-MWM. Different biochemical estimations were used to assess brain striatum oxidative stress (lipid peroxide, superoxide dismutase and catalase), nitric oxide levels (nitrite/nitrate), cholinergic activity (brain striatum acetyl cholinesterase activity), and mitochondrial enzyme complex (I, II and IV) activities. 3-NPA has induced anxiety, impaired learning-memory with a reduction in body weight, locomotor activity, grip strength. It has increased brain striatum acetylcholinesterase-AChE activity, oxidative stress (lipid peroxide, nitrite/nitrate, superoxide dismutase and catalase) and impaired mitochondrial complex enzyme (I, II and IV) activities. Tetrabenazine-TBZ (monoamine storage inhibitor) was used as positive control. Treatment with moxonidine, NDDCT and TBZ significantly attenuated 3-NPA induced reduction in body weight, locomotor activity, grip strength, anxiety as well as impaired learning and memory. Administration of these agents attenuated 3-NPA induced various biochemical impairments. Therefore, modulation of I1-imidazoline receptor as well as NF-κB may be considered as potential pharmacological agents for the management of 3-NPA induced HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surbhi Gupta
- Neuropharmacology Lab., Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Bharat Institute of Technology, Partapur Bypass, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India.
| | - Bhupesh Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Bharat Institute of Technology, Partapur Bypass, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India; CNS Pharmacology, Conscience Research, Pocket F-233, B, Dilshad Garden, Delhi 110095, India.
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Lacroix S, Hamilton LK, Vaugeois A, Beaudoin S, Breault-Dugas C, Pineau I, Lévesque SA, Grégoire CA, Fernandes KJL. Central canal ependymal cells proliferate extensively in response to traumatic spinal cord injury but not demyelinating lesions. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85916. [PMID: 24475059 PMCID: PMC3903496 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The adult mammalian spinal cord has limited regenerative capacity in settings such as spinal cord injury (SCI) and multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent studies have revealed that ependymal cells lining the central canal possess latent neural stem cell potential, undergoing proliferation and multi-lineage differentiation following experimental SCI. To determine whether reactive ependymal cells are a realistic endogenous cell population to target in order to promote spinal cord repair, we assessed the spatiotemporal dynamics of ependymal cell proliferation for up to 35 days in three models of spinal pathologies: contusion SCI using the Infinite Horizon impactor, focal demyelination by intraspinal injection of lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), and autoimmune-mediated multi-focal demyelination using the active experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS. Contusion SCI at the T9-10 thoracic level stimulated a robust, long-lasting and long-distance wave of ependymal proliferation that peaked at 3 days in the lesion segment, 14 days in the rostral segment, and was still detectable at the cervical level, where it peaked at 21 days. This proliferative wave was suppressed distal to the contusion. Unlike SCI, neither chemical- nor autoimmune-mediated demyelination triggered ependymal cell proliferation at any time point, despite the occurrence of demyelination (LPC and EAE), remyelination (LPC) and significant locomotor defects (EAE). Thus, traumatic SCI induces widespread and enduring activation of reactive ependymal cells, identifying them as a robust cell population to target for therapeutic manipulation after contusion; conversely, neither demyelination, remyelination nor autoimmunity appears sufficient to trigger proliferation of quiescent ependymal cells in models of MS-like demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Lacroix
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire (CHU) de Québec – CHUL et Département de médicine moléculaire, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Laura K. Hamilton
- Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), and Groupe de recherche sur le système nerveux central (GRSNC), Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Alexandre Vaugeois
- Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), and Groupe de recherche sur le système nerveux central (GRSNC), Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Stéfanny Beaudoin
- Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), and Groupe de recherche sur le système nerveux central (GRSNC), Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Christian Breault-Dugas
- Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), and Groupe de recherche sur le système nerveux central (GRSNC), Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Isabelle Pineau
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire (CHU) de Québec – CHUL et Département de médicine moléculaire, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Sébastien A. Lévesque
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire (CHU) de Québec – CHUL et Département de médicine moléculaire, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Catherine-Alexandra Grégoire
- Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), and Groupe de recherche sur le système nerveux central (GRSNC), Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Karl J. L. Fernandes
- Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), and Groupe de recherche sur le système nerveux central (GRSNC), Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Curzytek K, Kubera M, Szczepanik M, Basta-Kaim A, Leśkiewicz M, Budziszewska B, Lasoń W, Maes M. Crosstalk between contact hypersensitivity reaction and antidepressant drugs. Pharmacol Rep 2013; 65:1673-80. [DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(13)71529-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Galli C, Macaluso G, Passeri G. Serotonin: a novel bone mass controller may have implications for alveolar bone. J Negat Results Biomed 2013; 12:12. [PMID: 23964727 PMCID: PMC3766083 DOI: 10.1186/1477-5751-12-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
As recent studies highlight the importance of alternative mechanisms in the control of bone turnover, new therapeutic approaches can be envisaged for bone diseases and periodontitis-induced bone loss. Recently, it has been shown that Fluoxetine and Venlafaxine, serotonin re-uptake inhibitors commonly used as antidepressants, can positively or negatively affect bone loss in rat models of induced periodontitis. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that can be found within specific nuclei of the central nervous system, but can also be produced in the gut and be sequestered inside platelet granules. Although it is known to be mainly involved in the control of mood, sleep, and intestinal physiology, recent evidence has pointed at far reaching effects on bone metabolism, as a mediator of the effects of Lrp5, a membrane receptor commonly associated with Wnt canonical signaling and osteoblast differentiation. Deletion of Lrp5 in mice lead to increased expression of Tryptophan Hydroxylase 1, the gut isoform of the enzyme required for serotonin synthesis, thus increasing serum levels of serotonin. Serotonin, in turn, could bind to HTR1B receptors on osteoblasts and stop their proliferation by activating PKA and CREB. Although different groups have reported controversial results on the existence of an Lrp5-serotonin axis and the action of serotonin in bone remodeling, there is convincing evidence that serotonin modulators such as SSRIs can affect bone turnover. Consequently, the effects of this drug family on periodontal physiology should be thoroughly explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Galli
- Dep, Biomedicine, Biotechnology and Translational Sciences, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, Parma 43126, Italy.
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Ischemic preconditioning protects against spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury in rabbits by attenuating blood spinal cord barrier disruption. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:10343-54. [PMID: 23685868 PMCID: PMC3676842 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140510343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2013] [Revised: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioning has been reported to protect against spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. To investigate this, Japanese white rabbits underwent I-R (30 min aortic occlusion followed by reperfusion), ischemic preconditioning (three cycles of 5 min aortic occlusion plus 5 min reperfusion) followed by I-R, or sham surgery. At 4 and 24 h following reperfusion, neurological function was assessed using Tarlov scores, blood spinal cord barrier permeability was measured by Evan’s Blue extravasation, spinal cord edema was evaluated using the wet-dry method, and spinal cord expression of zonula occluden-1 (ZO-1), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were measured by Western blot and a real-time polymerase chain reaction. ZO-1 was also assessed using immunofluorescence. Spinal cord I-R injury reduced neurologic scores, and ischemic preconditioning treatment ameliorated this effect. Ischemic preconditioning inhibited I-R-induced increases in blood spinal cord barrier permeability and water content, increased ZO-1 mRNA and protein expression, and reduced MMP-9 and TNF-α mRNA and protein expression. These findings suggest that ischemic preconditioning attenuates the increase in blood spinal cord barrier permeability due to spinal cord I-R injury by preservation of tight junction protein ZO-1 and reducing MMP-9 and TNF-α expression.
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Fluoxetine shows promise as a neuroprotective therapy following spinal cord injury. Nat Rev Neurol 2012. [DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2012.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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