Nesprin 1 is critical for nuclear positioning and anchorage

LINC complexes mediate the positioning of cone photoreceptor nuclei in mouse retina

It has long been observed that many neuronal types position their nuclei within restricted cytoplasmic boundaries. A striking example is the apical localization of cone photoreceptors nuclei at the outer edge of the outer nuclear layer of mammalian retinas. Yet, little is known about how such nuclear spatial confinement is achieved and further maintained. Linkers of the Nucleoskeleton to the Cytoskeleton (LINC complexes) consist of evolutionary-conserved macromolecular assemblies that span the nuclear envelope to connect the nucleus with the peripheral cytoskeleton. Here, we applied a new transgenic strategy to disrupt LINC complexes either in cones or rods. In adult cones, we observed a drastic nuclear mislocalization on the basal side of the ONL that affected cone terminals overall architecture. We further provide evidence that this phenotype may stem from the inability of cone precursor nuclei to migrate towards the apical side of the outer nuclear layer during early postnatal retinal development. By contrast, disruption of LINC complexes within rod photoreceptors, whose nuclei are scattered across the outer nuclear layer, had no effect on the positioning of their nuclei thereby emphasizing differential requirements for LINC complexes by different neuronal types. We further show that Sun1, a component of LINC complexes, but not A-type lamins, which interact with LINC complexes at the nuclear envelope, participate in cone nuclei positioning. This study provides key mechanistic aspects underlying the well-known spatial confinement of cone nuclei as well as a new mouse model to evaluate the pathological relevance of nuclear mispositioning.

Nesprin interchain associations control nuclear size

Nesprins-1/-2/-3/-4 are nuclear envelope proteins, which connect nuclei to the cytoskeleton. The largest nesprin-1/-2 isoforms (termed giant) tether F-actin through their N-terminal actin binding domain (ABD). Nesprin-3, however, lacks an ABD and associates instead to plectin, which binds intermediate filaments. Nesprins are integrated into the outer nuclear membrane via their C-terminal KASH-domain. Here, we show that nesprin-1/-2 ABDs physically and functionally interact with nesprin-3. Thus, both ends of nesprin-1/-2 giant are integrated at the nuclear surface: via the C-terminal KASH-domain and the N-terminal ABD-nesprin-3 association. Interestingly, nesprin-2 ABD or KASH-domain overexpression leads to increased nuclear areas. Conversely, nesprin-2 mini (contains the ABD and KASH-domain but lacks the massive nesprin-2 giant rod segment) expression yields smaller nuclei. Nuclear shrinkage is further enhanced upon nesprin-3 co-expression or microfilament depolymerization. Our findings suggest that multivariate intermolecular nesprin interactions with the cytoskeleton form a lattice-like filamentous network covering the outer nuclear membrane, which determines nuclear size.

Organelle positioning in muscles requires cooperation between two KASH proteins and microtubules

The KASH proteins Klar and MSP-300 cooperate to promote even myonuclear spacing by linking the MSP-300 nuclear ring to the astral microtubule network.

Striated muscle fibers are characterized by their tightly organized cytoplasm. Here, we show that the Drosophila melanogaster KASH proteins Klarsicht (Klar) and MSP-300 cooperate in promoting even myonuclear spacing by mediating a tight link between a newly discovered MSP-300 nuclear ring and a polarized network of astral microtubules (aMTs). In either klar or msp-300^ΔKASH, or in klar and msp-300 double heterozygous mutants, the MSP-300 nuclear ring and the aMTs retracted from the nuclear envelope, abrogating this even nuclear spacing. Anchoring of the myonuclei to the core acto-myosin fibrillar compartment was mediated exclusively by MSP-300. This protein was also essential for promoting even distribution of the mitochondria and ER within the muscle fiber. Larval locomotion is impaired in both msp-300 and klar mutants, and the klar mutants were rescued by muscle-specific expression of Klar. Thus, our results describe a novel mechanism of nuclear spacing in striated muscles controlled by the cooperative activity of MSP-300, Klar, and astral MTs, and demonstrate its physiological significance.

LINC complexes form by binding of three KASH peptides to domain interfaces of trimeric SUN proteins

Linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes span the nuclear envelope and are composed of KASH and SUN proteins residing in the outer and inner nuclear membrane, respectively. LINC formation relies on direct binding of KASH and SUN in the perinuclear space. Thereby, molecular tethers are formed that can transmit forces for chromosome movements, nuclear migration, and anchorage. We present crystal structures of the human SUN2-KASH1/2 complex, the core of the LINC complex. The SUN2 domain is rigidly attached to a trimeric coiled coil that prepositions it to bind three KASH peptides. The peptides bind in three deep and expansive grooves formed between adjacent SUN domains, effectively acting as molecular glue. In addition, a disulfide between conserved cysteines on SUN and KASH covalently links both proteins. The structure provides the basis of LINC complex formation and suggests a model for how LINC complexes might arrange into higher-order clusters to enhance force-coupling.

Engineering muscle tissues on microstructured polyelectrolyte multilayer films

The use of surface coating on biomaterials can render the original substratum with new functionalities that can improve the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties as well as enhance cellular cues such as attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. In this work, we combined biocompatible polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with a biomimetic polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM) film made of poly(L-lysine) and hyaluronic acid (PLL/HA) for skeletal muscle tissue engineering. By microstructuring PDMS in grooves of a different width (5, 10, 30, and 100 μm) and by modulating the stiffness of the (PLL/HA) films, we guided skeletal muscle cell differentiation into myotubes. We found optimal conditions for both the formation of parallel-oriented myotubes and their maturation. Significantly, the myoblasts were collectively prealigned to the grooves before their differentiation. Before fusion, the highest aspect ratio and orientation of nuclei were observed for the 5 and 10 μm wide micropatterns. The formation of myotubes was observed regardless of the size of the micropatterns, and we found that their typical width was 10-12 μm. Their maturation was characterized by the immunolabeling of type II isomyosin. The amount of myosin striation was not affected by the topography, except for the 5 μm wide micropatterns. We highlighted the spatial constraints that led to an important nuclei deformation and further impairment of maturation within the 5 μm grooves. Altogether, our results show that the PEM film combined with PDMS is a powerful tool that is used for skeletal muscle engineering. This work opens perspectives for the development of skeletal muscle tissue in contact with films containing bioactive peptides or growth factors as well as for the study of pathogenic myotubes.

Opposing microtubule motors drive robust nuclear dynamics in developing muscle cells

Dynamic interactions with the cytoskeleton drive the movement and positioning of nuclei in many cell types. During muscle cell development, myoblasts fuse to form syncytial myofibers with nuclei positioned regularly along the length of the cell. Nuclear translocation in developing myotubes requires microtubules, but the mechanisms involved have not been elucidated. We find that as nuclei actively translocate through the cell, they rotate in three dimensions. The nuclear envelope, nucleoli and chromocenters within the nucleus rotate together as a unit. Both translocation and rotation require an intact microtubule cytoskeleton, which forms a dynamic bipolar network around nuclei. The plus- and minus-end-directed microtubule motor proteins, kinesin-1 and dynein, localize to the nuclear envelope in myotubes. Kinesin-1 localization is mediated at least in part by interaction with klarsicht/ANC-1/Syne homology (KASH) proteins. Depletion of kinesin-1 abolishes nuclear rotation and significantly inhibits nuclear translocation, resulting in the abnormal aggregation of nuclei at the midline of the myotube. Dynein depletion also inhibits nuclear dynamics, but to a lesser extent, leading to altered spacing between adjacent nuclei. Thus, oppositely directed motors acting from the surface of the nucleus drive nuclear motility in myotubes. The variable dynamics observed for individual nuclei within a single myotube are likely to result from the stochastic activity of competing motors interacting with a complex bipolar microtubule cytoskeleton that is also continuously remodeled as the nuclei move. The three-dimensional rotation of myotube nuclei may facilitate their motility through the complex and crowded cellular environment of the developing muscle cell, allowing for proper myonuclear positioning.

The Trypanosoma brucei AIR9-like protein is cytoskeleton-associated and is required for nucleus positioning and accurate cleavage furrow placement

AIR9 is a cytoskeleton-associated protein in Arabidopsis thaliana with roles in cytokinesis and cross wall maturation, and reported homologues in land plants and excavate protists, including trypanosomatids. We show that the Trypanosoma brucei AIR9-like protein, TbAIR9, is also cytoskeleton-associated and colocalizes with the subpellicular microtubules. We find it to be expressed in all life cycle stages and show that it is essential for normal proliferation of trypanosomes in vitro. Depletion of TbAIR9 from procyclic trypanosomes resulted in increased cell length due to increased microtubule extension at the cell posterior. Additionally, the nucleus was re-positioned to a location posterior to the kinetoplast, leading to defects in cytokinesis and the generation of aberrant progeny. In contrast, in bloodstream trypanosomes, depletion of TbAIR9 had little effect on nucleus positioning, but resulted in aberrant cleavage furrow placement and the generation of non-equivalent daughter cells following cytokinesis. Our data provide insight into the control of nucleus positioning in this important pathogen and emphasize differences in the cytoskeleton and cell cycle control between two life cycle stages of the T. brucei parasite.

Health status, infection and disease in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) studied using a canine microarray platform and machine-learning approaches

Conservation biologists face many challenges in assessing health, immune status and infectious diseases in protected species. These challenges include unpredictable sample populations, diverse genetic and environmental backgrounds of the animals, as well as the practical, legal and ethical issues involved in experimentation. The use of whole genome scale transcriptomics with animal samples obtained in a minimally invasive manner is an approach that shows promise for health assessment. In this study we assessed the utility of a microarray to identify changes in gene expression predictive of health status by interrogating blood samples from California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) in rehabilitation. A custom microarray was developed from the commercially available dog microarray (Canis familiaris) by selecting probes that demonstrated reliable cross-hybridization with RNA in sea lion blood. This custom microarray was used for the analysis of RNA from 73 sea lion blood samples, from animals with a broad spectrum of health changes. Both traditional classifying techniques and newer artificial neural network approaches correctly classified sea lions with respect to health status, primarily distinguishing between leptospirosis infection and domoic acid exposure. Real time PCR validation for a small set of genes, followed by sequencing, showed good correlation with array results and high identity (96-98%) between the dog and sea lion sequences. This approach to health status classification shows promise for disease identification in a clinical setting, and assessment of health status of wildlife.

UnLINCing the nuclear envelope: towards an understanding of the physiological significance of nuclear positioning

Appropriate tissue morphogenesis strictly requires the developmental regulation of different types of nuclear movements. LINC (linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) complexes are macromolecular scaffolds that span the nuclear envelope and physically connect the nuclear interior to different cytoskeletal elements and molecular motors, thereby playing essential roles in nucleokinesis. Recent studies dedicated to the in vivo disruption of LINC complexes not only confirmed their widespread role in nuclear dynamics, but also led to a vigorous regain of interest in the physiological relevance of nuclear positioning within cells and syncitia. In the present paper, we review the results of LINC complex disruption in vivo across different organisms and the potential implications of observed phenotypes in human diseases.

Nesprin-3 regulates endothelial cell morphology, perinuclear cytoskeletal architecture, and flow-induced polarization

Nesprin-3, a protein that links intermediate filaments to the nucleus, plays a role in vascular endothelial cell (EC) function. Nesprin-3 regulates EC morphology, perinuclear cytoskeletal organization, centrosome–nuclear connectivity, and flow-induced cell polarization and migration.

Changes in blood flow regulate gene expression and protein synthesis in vascular endothelial cells, and this regulation is involved in the development of atherosclerosis. How mechanical stimuli are transmitted from the endothelial luminal surface to the nucleus is incompletely understood. The linker of nucleus and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes have been proposed as part of a continuous physical link between the plasma membrane and subnuclear structures. LINC proteins nesprin-1, -2, and -4 have been shown to mediate nuclear positioning via microtubule motors and actin. Although nesprin-3 connects intermediate filaments to the nucleus, no functional consequences of nesprin-3 mutations on cellular processes have been described. Here we show that nesprin-3 is robustly expressed in human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) and localizes to the nuclear envelope. Nesprin-3 regulates HAEC morpho­logy, with nesprin-3 knockdown inducing prominent cellular elongation. Nesprin-3 also organizes perinuclear cytoskeletal organization and is required to attach the centrosome to the nuclear envelope. Finally, nesprin-3 is required for flow-induced polarization of the centrosome and flow-induced migration in HAECs. These results represent the most complete description to date of nesprin-3 function and suggest that nesprin-3 regulates vascular endothelial cell shape, perinuclear cytoskeletal architecture, and important aspects of flow-mediated mechanotransduction.

Nuclear positioning: mechanisms and functions

The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and its position is dynamically controlled in space and time, although the functional significance of this dynamic regulation is not always clear. Nuclear movements are mediated by the cytoskeleton which transmits pushing or pulling forces onto the nuclear envelope. Recent studies have shed light on the mechanisms regulating nuclear positioning inside the cell. While microtubules have been known for a long time to be key players in nuclear positioning, the actin and cytoplasmic intermediate filament cytoskeletons have been implicated in this function more recently and various molecular links between the nuclear envelope and cytoplasmic elements have been identified. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of nuclear localization in various animal cells and give an overview of the evidence suggesting a crucial role of nuclear positioning in cell polarity and physiology and the consequences of nuclear mispositioning in human pathologies.

Increased expression of Syne1/nesprin-1 facilitates nuclear envelope structure changes in embryonic stem cell differentiation

We found by electron microscopy that the inter-membrane space of embryonic stem cells is irregular and generally wider than in differentiated cells. Among a panel of nuclear envelope structural proteins examined, the expression of Syne1/nesprin-1 was found to be greatly induced upon differentiation. Down-regulation of Syne1 by siRNA in differentiated embryonic stem cells caused the nuclear envelope to adopt a configuration resembling that found in undifferentiated embryonic stem cells. Suppression of Syne1 expression did not produce a detectable impact on the retinoic acid-induced differentiation of embryonic stem cells; however, forced expression of Syne1 enhanced the tendency of the cells to lose pluripotency. Thus, we found that low expression of Syne1 splicing isoforms accounts for the wider and irregular nuclear envelope inter-membrane space in embryonic stem cells. We conclude that the nuclear envelope structural change accompanying differentiation likely participates in promoting the differential chromatin organization of the differentiated cells.

Prelamin A-mediated recruitment of SUN1 to the nuclear envelope directs nuclear positioning in human muscle

Lamin A is a nuclear lamina constituent expressed in differentiated cells. Mutations in the LMNA gene cause several diseases, including muscular dystrophy and cardiomyopathy. Among the nuclear envelope partners of lamin A are Sad1 and UNC84 domain-containing protein 1 (SUN1) and Sad1 and UNC84 domain-containing protein 2 (SUN2), which mediate nucleo-cytoskeleton interactions critical to the anchorage of nuclei. In this study, we show that differentiating human myoblasts accumulate farnesylated prelamin A, which elicits upregulation and recruitment of SUN1 to the nuclear envelope and favors SUN2 enrichment at the nuclear poles. Indeed, impairment of prelamin A farnesylation alters SUN1 recruitment and SUN2 localization. Moreover, nuclear positioning in myotubes is severely affected in the absence of farnesylated prelamin A. Importantly, reduced prelamin A and SUN1 levels are observed in Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) myoblasts, concomitant with altered myonuclear positioning. These results demonstrate that the interplay between SUN1 and farnesylated prelamin A contributes to nuclear positioning in human myofibers and may be implicated in pathogenetic mechanisms.

Nesprin-3 augments peripheral nuclear localization of intermediate filaments in zebrafish

The outer nuclear membrane protein nesprin-3 binds the cytoskeletal linker protein plectin, which are proposed to anchor the intermediate filaments to the nuclear envelope. To investigate the function of nesprin-3 in vivo, we used the zebrafish as a vertebrate model system. Zebrafish nesprin-3 is expressed at the nuclear envelope of epidermal and skeletal muscle cells during development. Unexpectedly, loss of nesprin-3 did not affect embryonic development, viability or fertility. However, nesprin-3-deficient zebrafish embryos showed a reduced concentration of intermediate filaments around the nucleus. Additional analysis revealed the presence of two nesprin-3 isoforms in zebrafish, nesprin-3α and nesprin-3β. Nesprin-3β is only expressed during early development and lacks seven amino acids in its first spectrin repeat that are crucial for plectin binding and recruitment to the nuclear envelope. These seven amino acids are highly conserved and we showed that residues R43 and L44 within this motif are required for plectin binding. Furthermore, several residues in the actin-binding domain of plectin that are crucial for binding to the integrin β4 subunit are also important for the binding to nesprin-3α, indicating partial overlapping binding sequences for nesprin-3α and integrin β4. All this shows that nesprin-3 is dispensable for normal development in zebrafish, but important for mediating the association of the intermediate filament system with the nucleus in vivo.

Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy

Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) is a progressive muscle-wasting disorder defined by early contractures of the Achilles tendon, spine, and elbows. EDMD is also distinctive for its association with defects of the cardiac conduction system that can result in sudden death. It can be inherited in an X-linked, autosomal dominant, or autosomal recessive fashion and is caused by mutations in proteins of the nuclear membrane. Mutations in the EMD gene, which encodes emerin, a transmembrane protein found at the inner nuclear membrane, are responsible for X-linked EDMD. The most common etiology of autosomal dominant EDMD is an LMNA gene mutation; LMNA encodes the intermediate filament protein lamins A and C, which constitute the major scaffolding protein of the inner nuclear membrane. Murine models of LMNA gene mutations have helped to identify different mechanisms of disease. Loss of LMNA function leads to nuclear fragility as well as other defects, such as abnormal nuclear function. Additional genes encoding nuclear membrane proteins such as SYNE1 and SYNE2 have also been implicated in EDMD, and in some cases their importance for cardiac and muscle function has been supported by animal modeling.

KASH protein Syne-2/Nesprin-2 and SUN proteins SUN1/2 mediate nuclear migration during mammalian retinal development

Nuclear movement relative to cell bodies is a fundamental process during certain aspects of mammalian retinal development. During the generation of photoreceptor cells in the cell division cycle, the nuclei of progenitors oscillate between the apical and basal surfaces of the neuroblastic layer (NBL). This process is termed interkinetic nuclear migration (INM). Furthermore, newly formed photoreceptor cells migrate and form the outer nuclear layer (ONL). In the current study, we demonstrated that a KASH domain-containing protein, Syne-2/Nesprin-2, as well as SUN domain-containing proteins, SUN1 and SUN2, play critical roles during INM and photoreceptor cell migration in the mouse retina. A deletion mutation of Syne-2/Nesprin-2 or double mutations of Sun1 and Sun2 caused severe reduction of the thickness of the ONL, mislocalization of photoreceptor nuclei and profound electrophysiological dysfunction of the retina characterized by a reduction of a- and b-wave amplitudes. We also provide evidence that Syne-2/Nesprin-2 forms complexes with either SUN1 or SUN2 at the nuclear envelope to connect the nucleus with dynein/dynactin and kinesin molecular motors during the nuclear migrations in the retina. These key retinal developmental signaling results will advance our understanding of the mechanism of nuclear migration in the mammalian retina.

Nesprins LINC the nucleus and cytoskeleton

Like other spectrin repeat proteins, nesprins co-ordinate and maintain cellular architecture by linking membranous organelles to the cytoskeleton. However nuclear envelope (NE) nesprins, uniquely hardwire the nuclear lamina to the cytoskeleton and molecular motors. Emerging evidence suggests that nesprins also form a continuous network linking the plasma membrane to the NE that potentially translates mechanical stimuli into nuclear reorganisation. Surprisingly, this network is also essential for cytoskeletal organisation and its disruption has dramatic effects on nuclear migration, centrosomal positioning, focal adhesion maturation and cell motility. Herein we review recent advances in our understanding of how nesprins couple to various filamentous systems within the cell and emphasise the importance of both KASH and KASH-less nesprin isoforms in these interactions.

Nesprin-1 and actin contribute to nuclear and cytoskeletal defects in lamin A/C-deficient cardiomyopathy

Lamin A/C mutations are the most common cause of familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) but the pathogenetic mechanisms are incompletely understood. Nesprins are spectrin repeat-containing proteins that interact with lamin A/C and are components of the linker-of-nucleoskeleton-and-cytoskeleton (LINC) complex that connects the nuclear envelope to the actin cytoskeleton. Our aim was to determine whether changes in nesprin-1 and actin might contribute to DCM in homozygous Lmna knockout (Lmna(-/-)) mice. Here we find that Lmna(-/-) cardiomyocytes have altered nuclear envelope morphology, disorganization of nesprin-1 and heterogeneity in the distribution of nuclear and cytoskeletal actin. Functional interactions of nesprin-1 with nuclear G-actin and with the cytoskeletal γ-actin, α-cardiac actin and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) isoforms were shown by immunoprecipitation and Western blotting. At 4-6 weeks of age, Lmna(-/-) mice had normal levels of γ-actin and α-cardiac actin, but α-SMA expression was increased by 50%. In contrast to the predominant vascular distribution of α-SMA in WT ventricular sections, α-SMA had a diffuse staining pattern in Lmna(-/-) sections. Osmotic swelling studies showed enhanced radial swelling in Lmna(-/-) cardiomyocytes indicative of cytoskeletal instability. The distensibility of Lmna(-/-) cardiomyocytes with osmotic stress was reduced by addition of α-SMA-specific fusion peptide. Our findings support a model in which uncoupling of the nucleus and cytoskeleton associated with disruption of the LINC complex promotes mechanical instability and defective force transmission in cardiomyocytes. Changes in the distribution and expression patterns of nuclear and cytoskeletal actin suggest that diverse transcriptional and structural defects may also contribute to DCM in Lmna(-/-) mice.