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Qiu Y, Huang Y, Chen J, Qiao D, Zeng G, Cai J. Depletion of IL-22 during culture enhanced antigen-driven IFN-γ production by CD4(+)T cells from patients with active TB. Immunol Lett 2013; 150:48-53. [PMID: 23266494 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2012.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2012] [Revised: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 12/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we mainly investigated the expression of IFN-γ and IL-22-producing CD4(+)T cells, the relationship between the two cytokines in human tuberculosis. We showed that IFN-γ and IL-22 were induced by human mycobacterial infection. Besides, CD4(+)T cells expressing IFN-γ and IL-22 were significantly elevated following PPD stimulation. In addition, IFN-γ and IL-22 -expressing CD4(+)T cells were distinct from each other. We also found that there was a reciprocal relationship between IFN-γ and IL-22 production. The production of IL-22 was markedly enhanced in the absence of IFN-γ, also, the expression of IFN-γ was increased when the IL-22 signaling was inhibited by monoclonal anti-IL-22 mAb. Furthermore, data revealed that the detectable IL-22 affected the phynotype of IFN-γ(+)CD4(+)T cells. IL-22 induced up-regulation of CD27 expression in IFN-γ(+)CD4(+)T cells, which might further confirm that IL-22 had an effect on the response of IFN-γ. Thus, this work provides a previous unknown relationship between IFN-γ and IL-22 in human TB disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueqin Qiu
- Department of Chemistry, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
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102
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Abstract
Silent mating type information regulation 1 (Sirtuin 1; SIRT1) has been reported to regulate various physiological events, such as aging and metabolism, via deacetylation of histone and nonhistone proteins. Notably, cumulative evidence supports the notion that SIRT1 has a Janus-faced role in tumorigenesis. SIRT1 contributes to anti-inflammation, genomic stability, and cancer cell death, and hence it has tumor-suppressor properties. On the other hand, SIRT1 can stimulate oncogenic signaling pathways and can create a tumor microenvironment favorable to growth and survival of cancer cells. Such dual functions of SIRT1 may be determined, at least in part, by its subcellular localization. Interestingly, SIRT1 displays differential localization in normal cells and cancer cells, which in turn may affect the substrate specificity for its deacetylase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na-Young Song
- Tumor Microenvironment Global Core Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
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103
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Bai KJ, Chen BC, Pai HC, Weng CM, Yu CC, Hsu MJ, Yu MC, Ma HP, Wu CH, Hong CY, Kuo ML, Lin CH. Thrombin-induced CCN2 expression in human lung fibroblasts requires the c-Src/JAK2/STAT3 pathway. J Leukoc Biol 2013; 93:101-112. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0911449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Thrombin might activate c-Src to induce JAK2 activation, which causes STAT3 activation, inducing CCN2 expression in human lung fibroblasts.
Thrombin is a multifunctional serine protease and an important fibrotic mediator that induces CCN2 expression. We previously showed that thrombin induces CCN2 expression via an ASK1-dependent JNK/AP-1 pathway in human lung fibroblasts. In this study, we further investigated the roles of c-Src, JAK2, and STAT3 in thrombin-induced CCN2 expression. Thrombin-induced CCN2 expression and CCN2-Luc activity were attenuated by a JAK inhibitor (AG490) and JAK2DN, STAT3DN, and the STAT decoy ODN. Moreover, transfection of cells with a CCN2-mtSTAT-Luc construct inhibited thrombin-induced CCN2-Luc activity. Treatment of cells with thrombin caused JAK2 phosphorylation at Tyr1007/1008 and STAT3 phosphorylation at Tyr705 in time-dependent manners. Thrombin-induced STAT3 phosphorylation was inhibited by AG490 and JAK2DN. Thrombin-induced STAT3 binding to the CCN2 promoter was analyzed by a DNA-binding affinity pull-down assay. In addition, thrombin-induced CCN2 expression and CCN2-Luc activity were inhibited by c-SrcDN and PP2 (an Src inhibitor). Transfection of cells with c-SrcDN also inhibited thrombin-induced JAK2 and STAT3 phosphorylation. Taken together, these results indicate that thrombin might activate c-Src to induce JAK2 activation, which in turn, causes STAT3 activation, and finally induces CCN2 expression in human lung fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kua-Jen Bai
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Taipei Medical University–Wanfang Hospital, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Respiratory Therapy, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Bing-Chang Chen
- School of Respiratory Therapy, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Chen Pai
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ming Weng
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Chi Yu
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Jen Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chih Yu
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Taipei Medical University–Wanfang Hospital, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Respiratory Therapy, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hon-Ping Ma
- Taipei Medical University–Shuang Ho Hospital , New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hsiung Wu
- Taipei Medical University–Shuang Ho Hospital , New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chuang-Ye Hong
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Taipei Medical University–Wanfang Hospital, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Min-Liang Kuo
- Angiogenesis Research Center, Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Toxicology, Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Huang Lin
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Taipei Medical University–Wanfang Hospital, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University , Taipei, Taiwan
- Taipei Medical University–Shuang Ho Hospital , New Taipei City, Taiwan
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104
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Xia J, Wu X, Yang Y, Zhao Y, Fang M, Xie W, Wang H, Xu Y. SIRT1 deacetylates RFX5 and antagonizes repression of collagen type I (COL1A2) transcription in smooth muscle cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 428:264-70. [PMID: 23079621 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.10.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Decreased expression of collagen by vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) within the atherosclerotic plaque contributes to the thinning of the fibrous cap and poses a great threat to plaque rupture. Elucidation of the mechanism underlying repressed collagen type I (COL1A2) gene would potentially provide novel solutions that can prevent rupture-induced complications. We have previously shown that regulatory factor for X-box (RFX5) binds to the COL1A2 transcription start site and represses its transcription. Here we report that SIRT1, an NAD-dependent, class III deacetylase, forms a complex with RFX5. Over-expression of SIRT1 or NAMPT, which synthesizes NAD+ to activate SIRT1, or treatment with the SIRT1 agonist resveratrol decreases RFX5 acetylation and disrupts repression of the COL1A2 promoter activity by RFX5. On the contrary, knockdown of SIRT1 or treatment with SIRT1 inhibitors induces RFX5 acetylation and enhances the repression of collagen transcription. SIRT1 antagonizes RFX5 activity by promoting its nuclear expulsion and proteasomal degradation hence dampening its binding to the COL1A2 promoter. The pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ represses COL1A2 transcription by down-regulating SIRT1 expression in SMCs. Therefore, our data have identified as novel pathway whereby SIRT1 maintains collagen synthesis in SMCs by modulating RFX5 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Xia
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, China
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105
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Zhu X, Li Z, Pan W, Qin L, Zhu G, Ke Y, Wu J, Bo P, Meng S. Participation of Gab1 and Gab2 in IL-22-mediated keratinocyte proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Mol Cell Biochem 2012; 369:255-66. [PMID: 22851227 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-012-1389-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is one of the key mediators of keratinocyte alterations in psoriasis. IL-22 inhibits keratinocyte differentiation and induces the migration of human keratinocytes. Grb2-associated binder 1 (Gab1) has been shown to mediate epidermal growth factor-induced epidermal growth and differentiation via interaction with the Src homology-2-containing protein-tyrosine phosphatase (Shp2). In this investigation, we explore the role of Gab1 and Gab2 in IL-22-mediated keratinocyte activities. We show that both Gab1 and Gab2 were tyrosine phosphorylated in IL-22-stimulated HaCaT cells and human primary epidermal keratinocytes and contributed to the activation of Extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 (Erk1/2) through interaction with Shp2. We further demonstrate that HaCaT cells infected with adenoviruses expressing Shp2-binding-defective Gab1/2 mutants exhibited decreased cell proliferation and migration, as well as increased differentiation. Moreover, similar results were observed in HaCaT cells infected with adenovirus-based small interfering RNAs targeting Gab1 and/or Gab2. Altogether, these data underscore the critical roles of Gab1 and Gab2 in IL-22-mediated HaCaT cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofang Zhu
- Department of Dermatology of Clinical Medical School, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
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106
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Icardi L, De Bosscher K, Tavernier J. The HAT/HDAC interplay: multilevel control of STAT signaling. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2012; 23:283-91. [PMID: 22989617 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2012.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Besides the transcription-promoting role of histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and the transcription-delimiting function of histone deacetylases (HDACs) through histone acetylation and deacetylation respectively, HATs and HDACs also regulate the activity of several non-histone proteins. This includes signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs), key proteins in cytokine signaling. Unlike Tyr phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, which mainly acts as an on/off switch of STAT activity, the control exerted by HATs and HDACs appears multifaceted and far more complex than initially imagined. Our review focuses on the latest trends and novel hypotheses to explain differential context-dependent STAT regulation by complex posttranslational modification patterns. We chart the knowledge on how STATs interact with HATs and HDACs, and additionally bring a transcriptional regulatory and gene-set specific role for HDACs in the picture. Indeed, a growing amount of evidence demonstrates, paradoxically, that not only HAT but also HDAC activity can be required for STAT-dependent transcription, in a STAT subtype- and cell type-dependent manner. Referring to recent reports, we review and discuss the various molecular mechanisms that have recently been proposed to account for this peculiar regulation, in an attempt to shed more light on the difficult yet important question on how STAT specificity is being generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Icardi
- Department of Medical Protein Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
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107
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Wieczorek M, Ginter T, Brand P, Heinzel T, Krämer OH. Acetylation modulates the STAT signaling code. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2012; 23:293-305. [PMID: 22795479 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A fascinating question of modern biology is how a limited number of signaling pathways generate biological diversity and crosstalk phenomena in vivo. Well-defined posttranslational modification patterns dictate the functions and interactions of proteins. The signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) are physiologically important cytokine-induced transcription factors. They are targeted by a multitude of posttranslational modifications that control and modulate signaling responses and gene expression. Beyond phosphorylation of serine and tyrosine residues, lysine acetylation has recently emerged as a critical modification regulating STAT functions. Interestingly, acetylation can determine STAT signaling codes by various molecular mechanisms, including the modulation of other posttranslational modifications. Here, we provide an overview on the acetylation of STATs and how this protein modification shapes cellular cytokine responses. We summarize recent advances in understanding the impact of STAT acetylation on cell growth, apoptosis, innate immunity, inflammation, and tumorigenesis. Furthermore, we discuss how STAT acetylation can be targeted by small molecules and we consider the possibility that additional molecules controlling STAT signaling are regulated by acetylation. Our review also summarizes evolutionary aspects and we show similarities between the acetylation-dependent control of STATs and other important molecules. We propose the concept that, similar to the 'histone code', distinct posttranslational modifications and their crosstalk orchestrate the functions and interactions of STAT proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Wieczorek
- Center for Molecular Biomedicine, Institute for Biochemistry and Biophysics, Department of Biochemistry, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
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108
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Ciccia F, Accardo-Palumbo A, Alessandro R, Rizzo A, Principe S, Peralta S, Raiata F, Giardina A, De Leo G, Triolo G. Interleukin-22 and interleukin-22-producing NKp44+ natural killer cells in subclinical gut inflammation in ankylosing spondylitis. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2012; 64:1869-78. [PMID: 22213179 DOI: 10.1002/art.34355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The intestinal inflammation observed in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is characterized by an overexpression of interleukin-23 (IL-23). IL-23 is known to regulate IL-22 production through lamina propria NKp44+ natural killer (NK) cells, which are thought to be involved in protective mucosal mechanisms. This study was undertaken to evaluate the frequency of NKp44+ NK cells and the expression of IL-22 in the ileum of AS patients. METHODS Tissue NKp44+ NK cells, NKp46+ NK cells, and IL-22-producing cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. Quantitative gene expression analysis of IL-22, IL-23, IL-17, STAT-3, and mucin 1 (MUC-1) was performed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction on ileal samples from 15 patients with AS, 15 patients with Crohn's disease (CD), and 15 healthy controls. NKp44, pSTAT-3, and IL-22 expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS The frequency of NKp44+ but not NKp46+ NK cells was increased in the inflamed ileum of AS patients compared to CD patients and controls. The frequency of NKp46+ NK cells was significantly increased only in CD patients. Among CD4+ lymphocytes and NKp44+ NK cell subsets, the latter were the major source of IL-22 on lamina propria mononuclear cells from AS patients. Significant up-regulation of IL-22, IL-23p19, MUC-1, and STAT-3 transcripts in the terminal ileum of patients with AS was observed. Immunohistochemical analysis confirmed the increased IL-22 and pSTAT-3 expression in inflamed mucosa from AS and CD patients. CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that overexpression of IL-22, together with an increased number of IL-22-producing NKp44+ NK cells, occurs in the gut of AS patients, where it appears to play a tissue-protective role.
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109
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Lin Z, Yang H, Kong Q, Li J, Lee SM, Gao B, Dong H, Wei J, Song J, Zhang DD, Fang D. USP22 antagonizes p53 transcriptional activation by deubiquitinating Sirt1 to suppress cell apoptosis and is required for mouse embryonic development. Mol Cell 2012; 46:484-94. [PMID: 22542455 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2012.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Revised: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The NAD-dependent histone deacetylase Sirt1 antagonizes p53 transcriptional activity to regulate cell-cycle progression and apoptosis. We have identified a ubiquitin-specific peptidase, USP22, one of the 11 death-from-cancer signature genes that are critical in controlling cell growth and death, as a positive regulator of Sirt1. USP22 interacts with and stabilizes Sirt1 by removing polyubiquitin chains conjugated onto Sirt1. The USP22-mediated stabilization of Sirt1 leads to decreasing levels of p53 acetylation and suppression of p53-mediated functions. In contrast, depletion of endogenous USP22 by RNA interference destabilizes Sirt1, inhibits Sirt1-mediated deacetylation of p53 and elevates p53-dependent apoptosis. Genetic deletion of the usp22 gene results in Sirt1 instability, elevated p53 transcriptional activity and early embryonic lethality in mice. Our study elucidates a molecular mechanism in suppression of cell apoptosis by stabilizing Sirt1 in response to DNA damage and reveals a critical physiological function of USP22 in mouse embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenghong Lin
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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110
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Abstract
We look back on the discoveries that the tyrosine kinases TYK2 and JAK1 and the transcription factors STAT1, STAT2, and IRF9 are required for the cellular response to type I interferons. This initial description of the JAK-STAT pathway led quickly to additional discoveries that type II interferons and many other cytokines signal through similar mechanisms. This well-understood pathway now serves as a paradigm showing how information from protein-protein contacts at the cell surface can be conveyed directly to genes in the nucleus. We also review recent work on the STAT proteins showing the importance of several different posttranslational modifications, including serine phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, and sumoylation. These remarkably proficient proteins also provide noncanonical functions in transcriptional regulation and they also function in mitochondrial respiration and chromatin organization in ways that may not involve transcription at all.
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Affiliation(s)
- George R. Stark
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - James E. Darnell
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065-6399, USA
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111
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Ryan C, Abramson A, Patel M, Menter A. Current investigational drugs in psoriasis. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2012; 21:473-87. [PMID: 22400979 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2012.669372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The advent of biologic therapies has revolutionized the treatment of psoriasis. Increased understanding of immunogenetic pathways has allowed for the development of more selective targeted biologic therapies. Multiple new treatments are currently in development for the treatment of psoriasis. Preliminary data for many of these agents, particularly with regard to agents targeting the IL-23/Th17 pathway, are promising. Proven long-term safety, however, is an absolute necessity with newly developed drugs, and should, therefore, still be considered second-line agents to current established treatments with long-term safety data. AREAS COVERED This review details the mechanisms of action of drugs currently in development or in clinical trials for the treatment of psoriasis, using clinical trial registries and associated publications. Readers will gain a comprehensive overview about the mechanism of action of emerging treatments targeting various immune pathways deeply involved in psoriasis. Pathogenesis, clinical efficacy and safety data for these treatments are discussed where available. EXPERT OPINION Psoriasis remains a heavily undertreated systemic immune-mediated disease despite increased understanding of immunopathogenesis of the disease and advent of a multitude of novel therapeutic agents with potentially improved bioavailability and safety profiles. Limitations, however, remain in the realm of topical agents for treatment of mild to moderate psoriasis, which has seen little progress over the years. A concerted effort will need to be made among researchers, clinicians and patient advocacy groups to ensure new therapeutic agents are developed and gain proper exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitriona Ryan
- Department of Dermatology, Baylor University Medical Center, 3900 Junius Street, Suite 125, Dallas, TX 75204, USA.
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112
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Orecchia A, Scarponi C, Di Felice F, Cesarini E, Avitabile S, Mai A, Mauro ML, Sirri V, Zambruno G, Albanesi C, Camilloni G, Failla CM. Sirtinol treatment reduces inflammation in human dermal microvascular endothelial cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24307. [PMID: 21931678 PMCID: PMC3171404 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylases (HDAC) are key enzymes in the epigenetic control of gene expression. Recently, inhibitors of class I and class II HDAC have been successfully employed for the treatment of different inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, colitis, airway inflammation and asthma. So far, little is known so far about a similar therapeutic effect of inhibitors specifically directed against sirtuins, the class III HDAC. In this study, we investigated the expression and localization of endogenous sirtuins in primary human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HDMEC), a cell type playing a key role in the development and maintenance of skin inflammation. We then examined the biological activity of sirtinol, a specific sirtuin inhibitor, in HDMEC response to pro-inflammatory cytokines. We found that, even though sirtinol treatment alone affected only long-term cell proliferation, it diminishes HDMEC inflammatory responses to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α and interleukin (IL)-1β. In fact, sirtinol significantly reduced membrane expression of adhesion molecules in TNFã- or IL-1β-stimulated cells, as well as the amount of CXCL10 and CCL2 released by HDMEC following TNFα treatment. Notably, sirtinol drastically decreased monocyte adhesion on activated HDMEC. Using selective inhibitors for Sirt1 and Sirt2, we showed a predominant involvement of Sirt1 inhibition in the modulation of adhesion molecule expression and monocyte adhesion on activated HDMEC. Finally, we demonstrated the in vivo expression of Sirt1 in the dermal vessels of normal and psoriatic skin. Altogether, these findings indicated that sirtuins may represent a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases characterized by a prominent microvessel involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Orecchia
- Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | - Elisa Cesarini
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology ‘C. Darwin’, University di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Antonello Mai
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technologies, Pasteur Institute, Cenci Bolognetti Foundation, University di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Mauro
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology ‘C. Darwin’, University di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Sirri
- RNA Biology, FRE3402 CNRS, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Giorgio Camilloni
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology ‘C. Darwin’, University di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
- Istituto di Biologia e Patologia Molecolari, CNR, Rome, Italy
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