A lack of consensus in the assessment of fracture healing among orthopaedic surgeons

Assessment and effect of a gap between new-onset epilepsy diagnosis and treatment in the US

Objective

To estimate the treatment gap between a new epilepsy diagnosis and antiepileptic drug (AED) initiation in the United States.

Methods

Retrospective claims-based cohort study using Truven Health MarketScan databases (commercial and supplemental Medicare, calendar years 2010–2015; Medicaid, 2010–2014) and a validation study using PharMetrics Plus Database linked to LRx claims database (2009–2014). Persons met epilepsy diagnostic criteria, had an index date (first epilepsy diagnosis) with a preceding 2-year baseline (1 year for persons aged 1 to <2 years; none for persons <1 year), and continuous medical and pharmacy enrollment without epilepsy/seizure diagnosis or AED prescription during baseline. Outcomes included percentage of untreated persons (no AED prescription) up to 3 years' follow-up and comparative outcomes (incidence rate ratio: untreated persons/treated persons), including medical events and health care resource utilization.

Results

In the primary study, 59,970 persons met selection (or inclusion) criteria; 36.7% of persons with newly diagnosed epilepsy remained untreated up to 3 years after diagnosis. In the validation study (N = 30,890), 31.8% of persons remained untreated up to 3 years after diagnosis. Lack of AED treatment was associated with an adjusted incidence rate ratio (95% confidence interval) of 1.2 (1.2–1.3) for medical events, 2.3 (2.2–2.3) for hospitalizations, and 2.8 (2.7–2.9) for emergency department visits.

Conclusions

One-third of newly diagnosed persons remain untreated up to 3 years after epilepsy diagnosis. The increased risk of medical events and health care utilization highlights the consequences of delayed treatment after epilepsy diagnosis, which might be preventable.

Radiologic evaluation of fracture healing

While assessment of fracture healing is a common task for both orthopedic surgeons and radiologists, it remains challenging due to a lack of consensus on imaging and clinical criteria as well as the lack of a true gold standard. Further complicating this evaluation are the wide variations between patients, specific fracture sites, and fracture patterns. Research into the mechanical properties of bone and the process of bone healing has helped to guide the evaluation of fracture union. Development of standardized scoring systems and identification of specific radiologic signs have further clarified the radiologist's role in this process. This article reviews these scoring systems and signs with regard to the biomechanical basis of fracture healing. We present the utility and limitations of current techniques used to assess fracture union as well as newer methods and potential future directions for this field.

Extracorporeal Shock Wave Treatment for Delayed Union and Nonunion Fractures: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

Nonunions after bone fractures are usually treated surgically with risk of infections and failure of osteosynthesis. A noninvasive alternative is extracorporeal shock wave treatment (ESWT), which potentially stimulates bone regeneration. Therefore this review investigates whether ESWT is an effective and safe treatment for delayed unions and nonunions.

DATA SOURCES

Embase.com, MEDLINE ovid, Cochrane, Web of Science, PubMed publisher, and Google Scholar were systematically searched.

STUDY SELECTION

Inclusion criteria included studies with patients with delayed union or nonunion treated with ESWT; inclusion of ≥10 patients; and follow-up period ≥6 weeks.

DATA EXTRACTION

Assessment for risk of bias was conducted by 2 authors using the Cochrane tool. Union rates and adverse events were extracted from the studies.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Two RCTs and 28 nonrandomized studies were included. One RCT was assessed at medium risk of bias and reported similar union rates between ESWT-treated patients (71%) and surgery-treated patients (74%). The remaining 29 studies were at high risk of bias due to poor description of randomization (n = 1), nonrandomized allocation to control groups (n = 2), or absence of control groups (n = 26). The average union rate after ESWT in delayed unions was 86%, in nonunions 73%, and in nonunions after surgery 81%. Only minor adverse events were reported after ESWT.

CONCLUSIONS

ESWT seems to be effective for the treatment of delayed unions and nonunions. However, the quality of most studies is poor. Therefore, we strongly encourage conducting well-designed RCTs to prove the effectiveness of ESWT and potentially improve the treatment of nonunions because ESWT might be as effective as surgery but safer.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Radiostereometric analysis of the initial stability of internally fixed femoral neck fractures under differential loading

We examined the feasibility of radiostereometric analysis (RSA) in the assessment of the initial stability of internally fixed femoral neck fractures. The study included 16 patients (mean age 73 years). During surgery, multiple RSA-beads were inserted on both sides of the fracture. Radiographs for RSA were taken in the supine position within the first 3 days and 6, 12, 24, and 52 weeks after surgery. To detect any inducible motion at the fracture-site, radiographs for RSA were taken with the patient resting or applying a load through the fracture. Fracture loading was achieved by the patient pressing the ipsilateral foot as much as tolerated on a force plate while providing a counterforce through both hands. Micromotion exceeding the precision values of RSA (≥0.3 mm for the translation vector and/or ≥1.2 degrees for the rotation vector) was considered significant. Permanent three-dimensional fracture-site displacement was also recorded. Voluntary loading induced fracture-site micromotion, which exhibited a dichotomous distribution. In patients with uncomplicated fracture union, inducible micromotion was detectable only at baseline-if at all. Conversely, fractures that developed a nonunion were characterized by the continuation of inducible micromotion beyond baseline. Permanent fracture-site displacement was, on average, nearly an order of magnitude greater than the inducible micromotion. Fracture unions were characterized by the cessation of permanent fracture-site displacement by 12 weeks. Nonunions presented as outliers in permanent fracture-site displacement. Large-scale studies are warranted to evaluate whether the detection of inducible micromotion beyond baseline could serve as an indicator of insufficient fixation stability. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Orthopaedic Research® Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

New Imaging, Diagnostic, and Assessment Techniques in Orthopedic Trauma

This article examines new imaging, diagnostic, and assessment techniques that may affect the care of patients with orthopedic trauma and/or infection. Three-dimensional imaging has assisted in fracture assessment preoperatively, whereas improvement in C-arm technology has allowed real-time evaluation of implant placement and periarticular reduction before leaving the operating room. Advances in imaging techniques have allowed earlier and more accurate diagnosis of nonunion and infection. Innovations in bacteriologic testing have improved the sensitivity and specificity of perioperative and peri-implant infections. It is critical that surgeons remain up to date on the options available for optimal patient care.

Incidence, Costs and Predictors of Non-Union, Delayed Union and Mal-Union Following Long Bone Fracture

Fracture healing complications are common and result in significant healthcare burden. The aim of this study was to determine the rate, costs and predictors of two-year readmission for surgical management of healing complications (delayed, mal, non-union) following fracture of the humerus, tibia or femur. Humeral, tibial and femoral (excluding proximal) fractures registered by the Victorian Orthopaedic Trauma Outcomes Registry over five years (n = 3962) were linked with population-level hospital admissions data to identify two-year readmissions for delayed, mal or non-union. Study outcomes included hospital length-of-stay (LOS) and inpatient costs. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine demographic and injury-related factors associated with admission for fracture healing complications. Of the 3886 patients linked, 8.1% were readmitted for healing complications within two years post-fracture, with non-union the most common complication and higher rates for femoral and tibial shaft fractures. Admissions for fracture healing complications incurred total costs of $4.9 million AUD, with a median LOS of two days. After adjusting for confounders, patients had higher odds of developing complications if they were older, receiving compensation or had tibial or femoral shaft fractures. Patients who are older, with tibial and femoral shaft fractures should be targeted for future research aimed at preventing complications.

Development and Validation of the Foot Union Scoring Evaluation Tool for Arthrodesis of Foot Structures

Reliable evaluation of osseous consolidation after pedal arthrodesis can be difficult, and the presence or absence of radiographic healing often dictates care. Plain radiographs remain the mainstay imaging tool owing to their cost, efficiency, and low radiation exposure. Applying radiographic parameters that can reliably determine osseous healing is essential. However, currently, no reliable or validated measures are available to determine osseous union of any joint in the foot or ankle. The purpose of the present study was to develop a radiographic healing scoring system that would enhance the diagnostic healing assessment after joint arthrodesis of the foot or ankle. We adapted several existing scales previously validated for fracture healing in the leg, because no study has attempted to apply this to a joint fusion model. A total of 150 cases were evaluated by 6 blinded assessors to test the interrater reliability of the subjective healing assessment compared with the proposed scoring system. The radiographs were classified by the postoperative period: ≤4 weeks, 5 to 12 weeks, and >12 weeks. The initial proposed scale was found to have high interrater reliability but was burdensome. Using a priori item reduction protocols, a limited 5-item scale further improved the internal consistency and reduced the burden. The result was excellent interrater reliability (α = 0.978, standard deviation 0.02, 95% confidence interval 0.96 to 0.99) among all assessors compared with the reduced reliability (α = 0.752) for subjective arthrodesis healing. Intrarater reliability was also found to be superior using a test-retest method. The reliability of this system appeared superior to the subjective assessment of arthrodesis healing, even in the absence of clinical correlates, after foot arthrodesis.

Surgical fenestration and rehabilitation of a sports traumatic non-union ischial tuberosity fracture - Case report

INTRODUCTION

Ischial tuberosity fractures and complications may be an under recognized diagnosis in adolescent athletes. Operative interventions differ and may include anchor re-fixations, resections and osteostimulating drilling and partial hamstring releases. This case report illustrates a novel and less invasive management of a non-union following a proximal ischial tuberosity avulsion. This approach has to our knowledge not previously been described.

PRESENTATION OF CASE

The patient, a 14 years old female athlete, was complaining of sharp pain in the right side of the groin region, after an acute injury during a handball game. The pain was concentrated at the insertion of the adductor muscle group to the superior pubic ramus and the pubic symphysis. She was referred to our orthopaedic sports clinic after 6 months of unsuccessful conservative treatment. An MRI scan showed an ischial tuberosity non-union with a displacement less than 10 mm. Nine months after injury a surgical procedure was performed with the patient under general anaesthesia. An ultrasound guided fenestration of the non-union of the ischial tuberosity with a 1.6 mm Kirshner wire was performed. The enthesis was fenestrated 10 times, using a 1.2 mm syringe. Finally, a 5 ml local anaesthetic was injected in the area. 17 months after the trauma and 8 months postoperatively the patient had a full return to normal day activities including pain free squats and lunges. Radiologically the non-union was healed.

CONCLUSION

This novel and less invasive surgical procedure may therefore be seen as a possible treatment option to non-union of the ischial tuberosity with minimal displacement.

Regenerative medicine in lower limb reconstruction

Bone is a highly specialized connective tissue and has a rare quality as one of the few tissues that can repair without a scar to regain pre-injury structure and function. Despite the excellent healing capacity of bone, tumor, infection, trauma and surgery can lead to significant bone loss requiring skeletal augmentation. Bone loss in the lower limb poses a complex clinical problem, requiring reconstructive techniques to restore form and function. In the past, amputation may have been the only option; however, there is now an array of reconstructive possibilities and cellular therapies available to salvage a limb. In this review, we will evaluate current applications of bone tissue engineering techniques in limb reconstruction and identify potential strategies for future work.

Experimental Validation of the Radiographic Union Score for Tibial Fractures (RUST) Using Micro-Computed Tomography Scanning and Biomechanical Testing in an in-Vivo Rat Model

BACKGROUND

The Radiographic Union Score for Tibial fractures (RUST) and the modified version of the system, mRUST, are popular standards for assessing fracture-healing progress with use of radiographs. To our knowledge, this is the first study to experimentally validate the ability of RUST and mRUST to accurately assess bone-healing progression with use of both micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) scanning and biomechanical testing.

METHODS

Adult male rats (n = 29) underwent osteotomy with a midshaft fracture gap repaired with use of a polyetheretherketone plate. Anteroposterior and lateral radiographs were made of the repaired femora prior to rat death at end points of 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 17 weeks, and 2 fellowship-trained orthopaedic trauma surgeons independently assigned RUST and mRUST scores to repaired femora. The repaired and intact contralateral femora were then dissected. Bones underwent dissection, micro-CT scanning, and biomechanical torsion testing at the end points.

RESULTS

RUST scores ranged from 5 to 12 and mRUST scores ranged from 5 to 16. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were 0.89 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.78 to 0.94) for RUST and 0.86 (95% CI: 0.74 to 0.93) for mRUST, which fall within the "almost perfect agreement" category for ICCs. Spearman rank correlation coefficients (RS) showed correlation of RUST (RS range, 0.456 to 0.818) and mRUST (RS range, 0.519 to 0.862) with micro-CT measurements of mineralized callus volume (BV), total callus volume (TV), and BV/TV ratio, but less so with bone mineral density (BMD). Additionally, RUST (RS range, 0.524 to 0.863) and mRUST (RS range, 0.434 to 0.850) were correlated with some biomechanical properties. A RUST score of 10 or an mRUST score of 15 may be considered the threshold above which a plated bone is "healed" because, at these scores, 120% or 140% of failure torque, respectively, was achieved by the repaired femora as compared with the intact contralateral femora.

CONCLUSIONS

RUST and mRUST both show strong statistical correlations with micro-CT and biomechanical parameters.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

RUST and mRUST scoring systems provide clinicians with validated, reliable, and available tools to assess the progress of fracture-healing.

Malnutrition and Fracture Healing: Are Specific Deficiencies in Amino Acids Important in Nonunion Development?

With the increasing incidence of fractures now, and in the future, the absolute number of bone-healing complications such as nonunion development will also increase. Next to fracture-dependent factors such as large bone loss volumes and inadequate stabilization, the nutritional state of these patients is a major influential factor for the fracture repair process. In this review, we will focus on the influence of protein/amino acid malnutrition and its influence on fracture healing. Mainly, the arginine-citrulline-nitric oxide metabolism is of importance since it can affect fracture healing via several precursors of collagen formation, and through nitric oxide synthases it has influences on the bio-molecular inflammatory responses and the local capillary growth and circulation.

Image Analysis Software as a Strategy to Improve the Radiographic Determination of Fracture Healing

OBJECTIVES

To develop and validate an unbiased, accurate, convenient, and inexpensive means of determining when an osseous defect has healed and recovered sufficient strength to allow weight bearing.

METHODS

A novel image processing software algorithm was created to analyze the radiographic images and produce a metric designed to reflect the bone strength. We used a rat femoral segmental defect model that provides a range of healing responses from complete union to nonunion. Femora were examined by x-ray, micro-computed tomography and mechanical testing. Accurate simulated radiographic images at different incident x-ray beam angles were produced from the micro-computed tomography data files.

RESULTS

The software-generated metric (SC) showed high levels of correlation with both the mechanical strength (τMech) and the polar moment of inertia (pMOI), with the mechanical testing data having the highest association. The optimization analysis yielded optimal oblique angles θB of 125 degrees for τMech and 50 degrees for pMOI. The Pearson R values for the optimized model were 0.71 and 0.64 for τMech and pMOI, respectively. Further validation using true radiographs also demonstrated that the metric was accurate and that the simulations were realistic.

CONCLUSIONS

The preliminary findings suggest a very promising methodology to assess bone fracture healing using conventional radiography. With radiographs acquired at appropriate incident angles, it proved possible to accurately calculate the degree of healing and the mechanical strength of the bone. Further research is necessary to refine this approach and determine whether it translates to the human clinical setting.

Radiographic Union Scoring Scale for Determining Consolidation Rates in the Calcaneus

The reliable evaluation of osseous consolidation after hindfoot osteotomy can be difficult. Concomitant hindfoot osteotomies often dictate the advancement of weightbearing, and radiographs are the mainstay imaging tool owing to cost, efficiency, and radiation exposure. Understanding the radiographic parameters that can be used to reliably determine osseous healing is paramount. However, currently, no reliable or validated method is available to determine osseous healing of hindfoot osteotomies in irregular bones of the foot. The purpose of the present study was to develop a radiographic healing scoring system that would enhance the diagnostic healing assessment after elective calcaneal osteotomy. We adapted existing orthopedic scales validated for healing in the leg for application in the irregular bones of the foot. A total of 168 cases were evaluated by 6 blinded assessors to test the interrater reliability of subjective healing assessment compared with the proposed scoring system. The radiographs were classified by postoperative period: ≤4 weeks, 5 to 12 weeks, and >12 weeks. The proposed scale had high interrater reliability but was burdensome. Using a priori item reduction protocols, a limited 6-item scale further improved internal consistency and reduced the burden. The result was excellent interrater reliability (α = 0.98, standard deviation 0.02, 95% confidence interval 0.91 to 0.96) among all assessors when using the scoring scale compared with unacceptable reliability (α = 0.438) for subjective osteotomy healing. The reliability of our system appeared superior to that of subjective assessment of osseous healing alone, even in the absence of clinical correlates after osteotomy of the calcaneus.

Fixation of periprosthetic or osteoporotic distal femoral fractures with locking plates: a pilot randomised controlled trial

Introduction

We hypothesised that the use of a polyaxial locking plate design offers the same clinical benefits as a monoaxial locking plate system following distal femoral osteoporotic/periprosthetic fracture fixation.

Method

A multicentre prospective randomised pilot trial was conducted. Inclusion criteria were patients over 60 years with a displaced osteoporotic or periprosthetic distal femoral fracture. Details documented included time to union, complications, reinterventions and functional outcomes according to the Oxford knee score and EuroQol EQ-5D. Analysis of factors influencing an early fracture healing response was performed between those with clear features of radiological callus formation at three months. Statistical analysis was performed using a logistic regression model with multiple covariates assessed for each plate system (1:1 ratio) over a follow-up period of one year.

Results

Forty patients (34 females) with a mean age of 77 (60–99) were recruited. Four patients deceased within the first six months. Twenty-five patients united by the six month follow-up. Six more patients progressed to union between six and nine months. Five patients developed non-union (two patients had implant failure; one in each group) and all underwent revision surgery. Malunion was evident in two cases, one with 15° of valgus (monoaxial plate), and one with 12° of recurvatum (polyaxial plate). Between the two plate systems, statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in most of the recorded parameters. Radiological features of early bone healing were present when the surgical approach was smaller (p = 0.015), and when a greater working length of the bridging plate was present (p = 0.016).

Conclusion

Both plate systems demonstrated good union rates and limited implant related complications. Good reduction, mechanically sound construct and respect of the local fracture biology was more important than the particular plate design characteristics.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s00264-018-4061-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Osteoimmunology: Effects of Standard Orthopaedic Interventions on Inflammatory Response and Early Fracture Healing

Achieving fracture union is highly dependent on the initial inflammatory phase of fracture healing, which is influenced by both the local and systemic inflammatory environments. The rapidly emerging field of osteoimmunology involves the study of the interactions between the immune system and the skeletal system. Recent research has advanced the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of the surrounding soft-tissue injury, fracture hematoma, and the method of fracture fixation on the inflammatory phase of fracture healing. Acute systemic inflammation, as seen in patients with polytrauma, and chronic systemic inflammation, as seen in patients with diabetes or rheumatoid arthritis, affects the inflammatory phase of fracture healing. The use of NSAIDs can influence early fracture healing. Understanding the effects of standard orthopaedic interventions on the local and systemic inflammatory responses and early fracture healing is important for optimizing fracture union.

Serum proteomic assessment of the progression of fracture healing

A targeted proteomic analysis of murine serum over a 35-day course of fracture healing was carried out to determine if serum proteomic changes could be used to monitor the biological progression of fracture healing. Transverse, closed femoral fractures where generated and stabilized with intramedullary fixation. A single stranded DNA aptamer-based multiplexed proteomic approach was used to assay 1,310 proteins. The transcriptomic profiles for genes matching the 1,310 proteins were obtained by microarray analysis of callus mRNA. Of the 1,310 proteins analyzed, 850 proteins showed significant differences among the time points (p-value <0.05). Ontology assessment associated these proteins with osteoblasts, monocyte/macrophage lineages, mesenchymal stem cell lines, hepatic tissues, and lymphocytes. Temporal clustering of these data identified proteins associated with inflammation, cartilage formation and bone remodeling stages of healing. VEGF, Wnt, and TGF-βsignaling pathways were restricted to the period of cartilage formation. Comparison of the proteomic and transcriptomic profiles showed that 87.5% of proteins in serum had concordant expression to their mRNA expression in the callus, while 12.5% of the protein and mRNA expression patterns were discordant. The discordant proteins that were elevated in the serum but down regulated in callus mRNA expression were related to clotting functions, allograft rejection, and complement function. While proteins down regulated in the serum and elevated in callus mRNA were associated with osteoblast function, NF-ĸb, and activin signaling. These data show the serum proteome may be used to monitor the different biological stages of fracture healing and have translational potential in assessing human fracture healing. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 36:1153-1163, 2018.

Infection after fracture fixation: Current surgical and microbiological concepts

One of the most challenging complications in trauma surgery is infection after fracture fixation (IAFF). IAFF may result in permanent functional loss or even amputation of the affected limb in patients who may otherwise be expected to achieve complete, uneventful healing. Over the past decades, the problem of implant related bone infections has garnered increasing attention both in the clinical as well as preclinical arenas; however this has primarily been focused upon prosthetic joint infection (PJI), rather than on IAFF. Although IAFF shares many similarities with PJI, there are numerous critical differences in many facets including prevention, diagnosis and treatment. Admittedly, extrapolating data from PJI research to IAFF has been of value to the trauma surgeon, but we should also be aware of the unique challenges posed by IAFF that may not be accounted for in the PJI literature. This review summarizes the clinical approaches towards the diagnosis and treatment of IAFF with an emphasis on the unique aspects of fracture care that distinguish IAFF from PJI. Finally, recent developments in anti-infective technologies that may be particularly suitable or applicable for trauma patients in the future will be briefly discussed.

A Multicentric, Open-Label, Randomized, Comparative Clinical Trial of Two Different Doses of Expanded hBM-MSCs Plus Biomaterial versus Iliac Crest Autograft, for Bone Healing in Nonunions after Long Bone Fractures: Study Protocol

ORTHOUNION is a multicentre, open, comparative, three-arm, randomized clinical trial (EudraCT number 2015-000431-32) to compare the efficacy, at one and two years, of autologous human bone marrow-derived expanded mesenchymal stromal cell (hBM-MSC) treatments versus iliac crest autograft (ICA) to enhance bone healing in patients with diaphyseal and/or metaphysodiaphyseal fracture (femur, tibia, and humerus) status of atrophic or oligotrophic nonunion (more than 9 months after the acute fracture, including recalcitrant cases after failed treatments). The primary objective is to determine if the treatment with hBM-MSCs combined with biomaterial is superior to ICA in obtaining bone healing. If confirmed, a secondary objective is set to determine if the dose of 100 × 10⁶ hBM-MSCs is noninferior to that of 200 × 10⁶ hBM-MSCs. The participants (n = 108) will be randomly assigned to either the experimental low dose (n = 36), the experimental high dose (n = 36), or the comparator arm (n = 36) using a central randomization service. The trial will be conducted in 20 clinical centres in Spain, France, Germany, and Italy under the same clinical protocol. The confirmation of superiority for the proposed ATMP in nonunions may foster the future of bone regenerative medicine in this indication. On the contrary, absence of superiority may underline its limitations in clinical use.

Outcomes of Presumed Aseptic Long-Bone Nonunions With Positive Intraoperative Cultures Through a Single-Stage Surgical Protocol

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the outcomes of a single-stage surgical protocol to treat a presumed aseptic long-bone nonunion with positive intraoperative cultures obtained at the time of surgery.

DESIGN

Retrospective comparative series.

SETTING

Orthopaedic specialty hospital.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively identified 77 patients with long-bone nonunions thought to be aseptic preoperatively, which grew bacteria from cultures obtained at the time of index nonunion surgery.

INTERVENTION

Fifty (65%) patients underwent open debridement of the nonunion site followed by surgical stabilization through plates and screws. Twenty-seven (35%) patients underwent exchange nailing with canal reamings used for cultures.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENT

Rate of radiographic union, time to clinical and radiographic union, nonunion rate after index nonunion surgery, and final union rate after revision procedures.

RESULTS

Osseous union after the index nonunion surgery was achieved in 84% of the patients (65 of 77). Time to clinical union was 6.3 months (range, 1-24 months), and time to radiographic union was 7.4 months (range, 2-24 months). Eighteen percent (14 of 77 patients) did not heal after the index nonunion surgery and required additional surgeries. The final union rate after revision surgery was 99% (76 of 77 patients).

CONCLUSIONS

Eighty-four percent of presumed aseptic nonunions of long-bone fractures with positive intraoperative cultures fully healed after a single-stage surgical protocol and long-term antibiotic when appropriate. When patients are diagnosed with a subclinical infected nonunion, they should be counseled about the higher likelihood of reoperation, but in most cases can expect excellent union rates after 1 additional surgery.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Fractures of the femoral shaft in children: national epidemiology and treatment trends in England following activation of major trauma networks

AIMS

The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiology of closed isolated fractures of the femoral shaft in children, and to compare the treatment and length of stay (LOS) between major trauma centres (MTCs) and trauma units (TUs) in England.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

National data were obtained from the Trauma and Audit Research Network for all isolated, closed fractures of the femoral shaft in children from birth to 15 years of age, between 2012 and 2015. Age, gender, the season in which the fracture occurred, non-accidental injury, the mechanism of injury, hospital trauma status, LOS and type of treatment were recorded.

RESULTS

A total of 1852 fractures were identified. The mean annual incidence was 5.82 per 100 000 children (95% confidence interval (CI) 5.20 to 6.44). The age of peak incidence was two years for both boys and girls; this decreased with increasing age. Children aged four to six years treated in MTCs were more likely to be managed with open reduction and internal fixation compared with those treated in TUs (odds ratio 3.20; 95% CI 1.12 to 9.14; p = 0.03). The median LOS was significantly less in MTCs than in TUs for children aged between 18 months and three years treated in both a spica (p = 0.005) and traction (p = 0.0004).

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the current national trends in the management of closed isolated fractures of the femoral shaft in children following activation of major trauma networks in 2012. Future studies focusing on the reasons for the differences which have been identified may help to achieve more consistency in the management of these injuries across the trauma networks. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:109-18.

Diagnosis and management of long-bone nonunions: a nationwide survey

Purpose

There is variability among surgeons on definitions regarding the degree of bone healing of long-bone fractures. A lack of consensus may negatively affect communication between surgeons, and lead to unintended and unwanted variability in treatment of patients suffering from abnormal healing of long-bone fractures. We aimed to identify differences between surgeons regarding their views on the degree of union of long-bone fractures.

Methods

We performed a survey among 114 surgeons who worked at 11 level I trauma centers and 68 level II/III hospitals in the Netherlands. We asked them to represent their institutional colleagues and answer questions regarding their views on the definition, factors influencing bone healing, clinical practice, views on scientific evidence, and the use or need of guidelines for non-union of long-bone fractures. A total of 26 trauma surgeons and 37 orthopedic surgeons responded (59%).

Results

Compared to trauma surgeons, more orthopedic surgeons maintain 6 months as the timeframe for classifying a fracture without healing tendencies as a non-union fracture (50 vs 70%; P = 0.019). Compared to orthopedic surgeons, trauma surgeons use the bone scan (46 vs 19%; P = 0.027) and the PET scan (50 vs 5.4%; P < 0.001) more often, and consider medication use to be a factor influencing bone healing more often (92 vs 69%; P = 0.040). Furthermore, they utilize bone marrow aspiration (35 vs 11%; P = 0.029), reaming of long bones (96 vs 70%; P = 0.010), synthetic bone substitutes (31 vs 5.4%; P = 0.012), bone morphogenetic proteins (58 vs 16%; P = 0.001), and the Diamond concept (92 vs 8.1%) more often as treatment modalities for non-union of long-bone fractures. Surgeons agreed on that intramedullary nail osteosynthesis was the treatment option supported by the highest level of evidence. 80% of the respondents feel a need for a clinical guideline on the management of long-bone non-union.

Conclusion

There is no consensus among surgeons on the definition, factors influencing healing, clinical practice, and scientific evidence regarding non-union of long-bone fractures. The vast majority of surgeons believe that their practice would benefit from (inter)national guidelines on this topic, and efforts should be made to reduce surgeon-to-surgeon variability in treatment recommendations and facilitate more homogenous scientific research on non-union of long-bone fractures.

Level of evidence

Level V.

Value of a radiographic score for the assessment of healing of nailed femoral and tibial shaft fractures: A retrospective preliminary study

OBJECTIVES

To assess the value of a radiographic score for the detection of delayed union in nailed fractures.

METHODS

The modified radiographic union score (mRUS) values were determined by three separate radiologists on 259 radiographic sets of 58 nailed tibial or femoral fractures obtained at different timepoints after fracture (mean of 4.5 radiographic sets per fracture). A surgeon determined fracture outcome (normal or delayed union) at a mean of 192days after injury. Mean radiographic scores obtained at different timepoints after fracture were compared between fractures with normal or abnormal healing at follow-up.

RESULTS

The mean score values increased significantly over time for fractures with normal healing for all readers (p<0.001). The mean score values determined 11-14 weeks after injury were higher in fractures with normal healing than in fractures with delayed union at follow-up (p<0.05). Scoring of radiographs obtained at about 3 months after injury or later enabled detection of fractures with delayed union with a sensitivity of 0.63-0.77 and a specificity of 1.0 (area under curve: 0.77- 0.88).

CONCLUSIONS

The mRUS score can contribute to the detection of delayed union at a delay of about 3 months after injury in nailed shaft fractures.

Digital blinding of radiographs to mask allocation in a randomized control trial

AIM

To demonstrate the effectiveness of a digital radiographic altering technique in concealing treatment allocation to blind outcome assessment of distal femur fracture fixation.

METHODS

Digital postoperative anteroposterior and lateral radiographs from a sample of 33 randomly-selected patients with extra-articular distal femur fractures treated by surgical fixation at a Level 1 trauma center were included. Using commercially available digital altering software, we devised a technique to blind the radiographs by overlaying black boxes over the implant hardware while preserving an exposed fracture site for assessment of fracture healing. Three fellowship-trained surgeons evaluated a set of blinded radiographs twice and a control set of unblinded radiographs once. Each set of radiographs were reviewed independently and in a randomly-assigned order. The degrees of agreement and disagreement among evaluators in identifying implant type while reviewing both blinded and unblinded radiographs were assessed using the Bang Blinding Index and James Blinding Index. The degree of agreement in fracture union was assessed using kappa statistics.

RESULTS

The assessment of blinded radiographs with both the Bang Blinding Index (BBI) and James Blinding Index (JBI) demonstrated a low degree of evaluator success at identifying implant type (Mean BBI, far cortical locking: -0.03, SD: 0.04; Mean BBI, standard screw: 0, SD: 0; JBI: 0.98, SD: 0), suggesting near perfect blinding. The assessment of unblinded radiographs with both blinding indices demonstrated a high degree of evaluator success at identifying implant type (Mean BBI, far cortical locking: 0.89, SD: 0.19; Mean BBI, standard screw: 0.87, SD: 0.04; JBI: 0.26, SD: 0.12), as expected. There was moderate agreement with regard to assessment of fracture union among the evaluators in both the blinded (Kappa: 0.38, 95%CI: 0.25-0.52) and unblinded (Kappa: 0.35, 95%CI: 0.25-0.45) arms of the study. There was no statistically significant difference in fracture union agreement between the blinded and unblinded groups.

CONCLUSION

The digital blinding technique successfully masked the surgeons to the type of implant used for surgical treatment of distal femur fractures but did not interfere with the surgeons’ ability to reliably evaluate radiographic healing at the fracture site.

The outcome of proximal fifth metatarsal fractures: redefining treatment strategies

BACKGROUND

To optimize the treatment strategy and reduce treatment costs of proximal fifth metatarsal fractures, clinical and patient-reported outcome, and its determinants were addressed.

METHODS

A retrospective adult cohort study including 152 proximal fifth metatarsal fractures: 121 nonoperatively and 31 operatively treated. In the operative group, 21 were zone 1 and 10 zone 2 fractures. Median follow-up was 37.5 (IQR 20.8-52.3) months with a minimal follow-up of 6 months. Twenty-three demographic, fracture, and treatment characteristics were assessed as well as the healthcare costs. Outcome was assessed using the patient files, anterior-posterior and oblique X-rays, foot function index (FFI), visual analog score (VAS), and SF-36 questionnaires.

RESULTS

The median FFI, physical SF-36, and VAS scores did not significantly differ between nonoperatively and operatively treated patients. The FFI and physical SF-36 were predominantly affected by a history of mobility impairment and pre-existent cardiovascular diseases, whereas mental SF-36 correlated significantly with higher ASA-score. Overall complication rate was 5.9% (4.1 vs. 12.9%; p = 0.065, nonoperative vs. operative, respectively). Nonunion was recorded in only one (nonoperatively) treated patient. The total healthcare costs for operative treatment were 4.2 times higher compared to nonoperative treatment (€1960 vs. €463 per patient, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Overall, the clinical and patient-reported outcome was good. The foot function and quality of life were mainly affected by comorbidity, rather than fracture and treatment-related variables. Although nonoperatively treated patients indicated decreased mental quality of life, our study indicates that proximal fifth metatarsal fractures can safely be treated nonoperatively without the risk of nonunion, with fewer complications and lower healthcare costs.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

3.

Evaluating the Use of Serum Inflammatory Markers for Preoperative Diagnosis of Infection in Patients with Nonunions

Purpose

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of laboratory serum tests in the diagnosis of infected nonunion.

Methods

Forty-two patients suspected of having infected nonunion were investigated in the study. The serum levels of white blood-cell count (WBC), C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were measured. A positive diagnosis of infection was made on the basis of the positive culture results. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of each test were calculated.

Results

The sensitivity and specificity of CRP both were higher than IL-6: 60.0% versus 57.1% and 85.7% versus 57.1%, respectively. With one, two, three, and four positive tests, the predicted probabilities of infection were 66.7%, 90.9%, 100%, and 100%, respectively, but the number of patients who had three or four positive tests was small.

Conclusions

The diagnostic utility of IL-6 is inferior to CRP and the finding conflicts with previous conclusions drawn from periprosthetic infections. Laboratory analysis of serum inflammatory markers alone is not an effective screening tool for patients suspected of having an infected nonunion.

Subtrochanteric fractures in elderly people treated with intramedullary fixation: quality of life and complications following open reduction and cerclage wiring versus closed reduction

INTRODUCTION

Subtrochanteric fractures are more difficult to treat than other proximal femoral fractures. The aim of this study was to report the outcomes for patients with subtrochanteric fractures treated using a cephalomedullary nail following open reduction and cerclage wiring versus closed reduction alone, regarding health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and social function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a prospective cohort study including patients aged 60 years or older suffering fragility subtrochanteric fractures of the femur treated with cephalomedullary nails, with a minimum 2-year follow-up. We defined two treatment groups: one treated with closed reduction manoeuvres (60 patients), and another treated with open reduction and cerclage wiring (30 patients). The outcomes were mortality, orthopaedic complications (reoperation and no-union), social function (Jensen Index), and HRQoL (EQ-5D index score).

RESULTS

There were no differences regarding sex, age, side affected, type of implant, anaesthetic risk, 1-year mortality, and orthopaedic complications. Surgical time was longer in the cerclage wire group, but length of stay was 2 days shorter for the cerclage group and reduction was better. Patients treated with cerclage wiring had significantly better EQ-ED at 12 months (0.66 ± 0.22 points vs. 0.78 ± 0.15 points); and social status at 12 and 18 months (2.77 ± 1.00 points vs. 2.10 ± 1.22 points).

CONCLUSIONS

Better reduction is achieved when using cerclage wires for fragility subtrochanteric fractures. These fractures had a negative effect on quality of life and social function, but better outcomes were observed in the cerclage group.

The risk of non-union per fracture: current myths and revised figures from a population of over 4 million adults

Background and purpose - Fracture non-union remains a major clinical problem, yet there are no data available regarding the overall risk of fractures progressing to non-union in a large population. We investigated the rate of non-union per fracture in a large adult population. Methods - National data collected prospectively over a 5-year period and involving just under 5,000 non-unions were analyzed and compared to the incidence of fracture in the same period. Results and interpretation - The overall risk of non-union per fracture was 1.9%, which is considerably less than previously believed. However, for certain fractures in specific age groups the risk of non-union rose to 9%. As expected, these higher rates of non-union were observed with tibial and clavicular fractures, but-less expectedly-it was in the young and middle-aged adults rather than in the older and elderly population. This study is the first to examine fracture non-union rates in a large population according to age and site, and provides more robust (and lower) estimates of non-union risk than those that are frequently quoted.

Reamer-Irrigator-Aspirator bone graft harvesting for treatment of segmental bone loss: analysis of defect volume as independent risk factor for failure

INTRODUCTION

The management of segmental bone loss poses a significant clinical challenge. The purpose of this study was to conduct a retrospective evaluation of our experience in treating segmental bone loss, using Reamer-Irrigator-Aspirator (RIA)-harvested autologous bone graft.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between June 2008 and March 2015, 81 patients were treated with the RIA technique for multiple purposes. Inclusion criteria for this study were skeletal mature patients with segmental bone loss, due to acute trauma or non-union, who were treated with RIA-harvested bone graft. Exclusion criteria were skeletal immaturity, pathological fractures and indications for the RIA system other than bone graft harvesting. The primary outcome parameter was clinical and radiographical bone healing.

RESULTS

During the study period, 72 patients met the inclusion criteria. In total, 39 patients (54.2%) were classified as having clinical and radiographical bone healing. Although univariate analysis could not reveal any significant influence of specific risk factors to predict the outcome, there was a trend towards statistical significance for defect volume. Further analysis indeed revealed that smaller defect volumes (< 8 cm³) had a lower risk of non-union.

CONCLUSIONS

In approximately half of our study population, the use of the RIA technique for autologous bone graft harvesting in cases of segmental bone loss resulted in a successful outcome with bone healing. Defect size seems to be a critical issue regarding the outcome. Although our results are less promising than previously published, the RIA technique has its place in the treatment algorithm of segmental bone defects.

Fracture healing: A review of clinical, imaging and laboratory diagnostic options

A fundamental issue in clinical orthopaedics is the determination of when a fracture is united. However, there are no established "gold standards," nor standardized methods for assessing union, which has resulted in significant disagreement among orthopaedic surgeons in both clinical practice and research. A great deal of investigative work has been directed to addressing this problem, with a number of exciting new techniques described. This review provides a brief summary of the burden of nonunion fractures and addresses some of the challenges related to the assessment of fracture healing. The tools currently available to determine union are discussed, including various imaging modalities, biomechanical testing methods, and laboratory and clinical assessments. The evaluation of fracture healing in the setting of both patient care and clinical research is integral to the orthopaedic practice. Weighted integration of several available metrics must be considered to create a composite outcome measure of patient prognosis.

Comparing fracture healing disorders and long-term functional outcome of polytrauma patients and patients with an isolated displaced midshaft clavicle fracture

BACKGROUND

Although clavicle fractures are a common injury in polytrauma patients, the functional outcome of displaced midshaft clavicle fractures (DMCFs) in this population is unknown. Our hypothesis was that there would be no differences in fracture healing disorders or functional outcome in polytrauma patients with a DMCF compared with patients with an isolated DMCF, regardless of the treatment modality.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of patients (treated at our level I trauma center) with a DMCF was performed and a follow-up questionnaire was administered. Polytrauma patients, defined as an Injury Severity Score ≥16, and those with an isolated clavicle fracture were compared. Fracture healing disorders (nonunion and delayed union) and delayed fixation rates were determined. Functional outcome was assessed by the Quick Disability of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand questionnaire.

RESULTS

A total of 152 patients were analyzed, 71 polytrauma patients and 81 patients with an isolated DMCF. Questionnaire response of 121 patients (80%) was available (mean, 53 months; standard deviation, 22 months). No differences were found between polytrauma patients and those with an isolated DMCF with regard to nonunion (7% vs. 5%, respectively), delayed union (4% vs. 4%), and delayed fixation rate (13% vs. 13%). Polytrauma patients had an overall worse functional outcome, regardless of initial nonoperative treatment or delayed operative fixation.

CONCLUSION

Polytrauma patients had a similar nonunion and delayed fixation rate but had an overall worse functional outcome compared with patients with an isolated DMCF. For polytrauma patients, a wait and see approach can be advocated without the risk of decreased upper extremity function after delayed fixation.

Reliability of the radiographic union scale in tibial fractures (RUST)

Objective

This study aimed to evaluate the inter- and intra observer reproducibility of the radiographic score of consolidation of the tibia shaft fractures.

Methods

Fifty-one sets of radiographs in anteroposterior (AP) and profile (P) of the tibial shaft treated with intramedullary nail were obtained. The analysis of X-rays was performed in two stages, with a 21-day interval between assessments by a group of nine evaluators. To evaluate the reproducibility of RUST score between the evaluators, the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) with a 95% confidence interval was used. ICC values range from +1, representing perfect agreement, to −1, complete disagreement.

Results

There was a significant correlation among all evaluators: ICC = 0.87 (95% CI 0.81 to 0.91). The intraobserver agreement proved to be substantial with ICC = 0.88 (95% CI 0.85 to 0.91).

Conclusion

This study confirms that the RUST scale shows a high degree of reliability and agreement.

Early prediction of tibial and femoral fracture healing: Are we reliable?

INTRODUCTION

To evaluate the ability of orthopaedic trauma subspecialists to predict early bony union in femoral and tibia shaft fractures.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eight orthopaedic trauma subspecialists prospectively predicted the probability of bony union at 6 and 12 weeks post-operatively for an aggregate of 48 femoral and tibial shaft fractures treated at a Level 1 trauma centre. An additional orthopaedic trauma subspecialist was blinded to treating surgeon and adjudicated healing at 18 weeks. The Squared-Error Skill Score (SESS) determined the likelihood of accurate forecasting for bony union.

RESULTS

Nine patients were lost follow-up, resulting in 39 fractures (81.25% retention) including 20 femoral and 19 tibial fractures. Fourteen fractures were open, 15 were not-yet united at final follow-up. SESS values were 0.25-0.77. The ability to predict union (sensitivity) was 1.000. The ability to predict nonunions (specificity) was 0.330-0.500. The probability of a correct predicted union was 0.727 and correct predicted nonunion at final follow-up was 1.000. AO/OTA type A fractures pattern predictions were highly accurate. As body mass index increased, predictions trended toward decreased accuracy (p=0.06). Tobacco use, age, gender, associated injuries, open fractures, and surgeons' years in clinical practice were not associated with accuracy of predictions.

CONCLUSIONS

At 12-weeks post-operatively orthopaedic trauma subspecialists can confidently predict the union state in this patient population. This data is most useful in the nonunion patient, directing early intervention, thereby decreasing patient disability and discomfort.

Bone healing in 2016

Delayed fracture healing and nonunion occurs in up to 5-10% of all fractures, and can present a challenging clinical scenario for the treating physician. Methods for the enhancement of skeletal repair may benefit patients that are at risk of, or have experienced, delayed healing or nonunion. These methods can be categorized into either physical stimulation therapies or biological therapies. Physical stimulation therapies include electrical stimulation, low-intensity pulsed ultrasonography, or extracorporeal shock wave therapy. Biological therapies can be further classified into local or systemic therapy based on the method of delivery. Local methods include autologous bone marrow, autologous bone graft, fibroblast growth factor-2, platelet-rich plasma, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins. Systemic therapies include parathyroid hormone and bisphosphonates. This article reviews the current applications and supporting evidence for the use of these therapies in the enhancement of fracture healing.

Review Management of nonunion in trauma

Treatment of nonunion has radically changed in recent years. We define nonunion as a fracture of bone induced either by trauma or surgery which does not show clinical or radiographic signs of progression to healing within a reasonable time span. The reparative processes are present but inadequate. Fracture healing may be considered to be a balance between repair and breakdown processes at the fracture site. When breakdown exceeds repair, nonunion is the result. Altering the conditions at the fracture site even marginally in favour of repair will eventually lead to bony continuity being restored. Nonunion treatment should follow three principles: a) realignment; b) stabilization; and c) stimulation. Any surgical proce dure should address one or all of these areas. In this article the principles of nonunion management are explained, together with different bone healing stimulation techniques and our clinical results.

Comparing the Incidence of Falls/Fractures in Parkinson's Disease Patients in the US Population

Patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) may experience falls and/or fractures as a result of disease symptoms. There are limited data available from long-term studies estimating the incidence of falls/fractures in patients with PD. The objective was to compare the incidence rate of falls/fractures in PD patients with non-PD patients in a US population. This was a retrospective study using a US-based claims database (Truven Health MarketScan^®) that compared the incidence rate of falls/fractures in PD subjects with non-PD subjects. The study period included the 12 months prior to index date (defined as earliest PD diagnosis [International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification code 332.0]) and a postindex period to the end of data availability. Fractures were defined by inpatient/outpatient claims as a principal or secondary diagnosis and accompanying procedure codes during the postindex period. Incidence rates and 95% CIs for falls/fractures were calculated as the number of events per 10,000 person-years of follow-up using negative binomial or Poisson regression models. Twenty-eight thousand two hundred and eighty PD subjects were matched to non-PD subjects for the analysis (mean [SD] age, 71.4 [11.8] years; 53% male). A higher incidence rate (adjusted for comorbidities and medications) of all fall/fracture cases and by fall and fracture types was observed for PD subjects versus non-PD subjects; the overall adjusted incidence rate ratio comparing PD to non-PD subjects was 2.05; 95% CI, 1.88–2.24. The incidence rate of falls/fractures was significantly higher in subjects with PD compared with non-PD subjects in a US population.

PERSONALIZED FINITE ELEMENT MODELING ANALYSIS OF FEMUR BONE HEALING AFTER INTRAMEDULLARY NAILING

Purpose: Based on rapid modeling 1 year after intramedullary nailing, personalized finite element modeling analysis was performed to predict whether the broken ends of fractured bones would break again after nail dislodgement. Methods: A total of 10 male volunteers with femur fractures who had undergone intramedullary nailing were selected 1 year after fixation and were divided into healing ([Formula: see text][Formula: see text]5) and non-healing ([Formula: see text][Formula: see text]5) groups based on X-ray analysis. We modeled each femoral fracture and performed finite element analyses after the intramedullary nail was dislodged. Static loads and constraints were applied to each model to simulate a person standing on one leg. Results: In the healing group, the von Mises stress concentrations and stress concentration point distribution were located outside the bone healing area, indicating that the stress was not concentrated at the fracture site. In the non-healing group, the maximum von Mises stress for various materials was located in the broken ends of the fractured bone, indicating that the stress was concentrated at the fracture site. Conclusion: Personalized modeling can be used to analyze bone healing before removal of a fixator to predict the stability of the fractured bone after fixator removal and to rapidly decide whether slow walking could refracture the broken ends.

Fracture healing: a consensus report from the International Osteoporosis Foundation Fracture Working Group

We used the RAND UCLA appropriateness method to decide appropriateness of use of osteoporosis medication after incident fracture and potential for fracture healing and make suggestions for trial design for clinical and preclinical research.

PURPOSE

To develop appropriateness criteria to assist in the use and study of osteoporosis medications in patients with recent fracture and in the potential use of osteoporosis medications to enhance delayed fracture healing. To promote further research by suggesting preclinical and clinical trial design for studies where fracture healing is the endpoint.

DESIGN

RAND/UCLA appropriateness method (RUAM).

PARTICIPANTS

A panel of experts, both members and non-members of the International Osteoporosis Foundation Fracture Working Group, were identified consisting of geriatricians, rheumatologists, orthopedists, endocrinologists, and internists. This resulted in a round 1 panel of 15 panelists, round 2 panel of 15 members, and a round 3 panel of 14 members.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Agreement on statements and scenarios using RUAM. Three rounds of voting by panelists took place. Agreement in a third round was reached for 111 statements and scenarios, measured by median panel ratings and the amount of dispersion of panel ratings, based on the interpercentile range.

RESULTS

An expert panel validated a set of statements and scenarios about the use of osteoporosis medications after incident fracture and use of these medications to enhance delayed fracture healing and made recommendations for study designs to investigate the effect of osteoporosis medications on fracture healing.

CONCLUSIONS

The result of this exercise is intended to assist in improving patient care by identifying the appropriateness of use of osteoporosis medications after fracture and in fracture healing and to make suggestions for further preclinical and clinical research.

Automated measurement of fracture callus in radiographs using portable software

The development of software applications that assist the radiographic evaluation of fracture healing could advance clinical diagnosis and expedite the identification of effective treatment strategies. A radiographic feature regularly used as an outcome measure for basic and clinical fracture healing research is new bone growth, or fracture callus. In this study, we developed OrthoRead, a portable software application that uses image-processing algorithms to detect and measure fracture callus in plain radiographs. OrthoRead utilizes an optimal boundary tracking algorithm to semi-automatically segment the cortical surface, and a novel iterative thresholding selection algorithm to then automatically segment the fracture callus. The software was validated in three steps. First, algorithm accuracy and sensitivity were analyzed using surrogate models with known callus size. Second, the callus area of distal femur fractures measured using OrthoRead was compared to callus area manually outlined by orthopaedic surgeons. Third, the callus area of ovine tibial fractures was measured using OrthoRead and compared to callus volume measured from micro-CT. The software had less than a 5% error in measuring surrogate callus, and was insensitive to changes in image resolution, image rotation, and the size of the analyzed region of interest. Strong positive correlations existed between OrthoRead and clinicians (R(2)  = 0.98), and between 2D callus area and 3D callus volume (R(2)  = 0.70). The average run time for OrthoRead was 3 s when using a 2.7 GHz processor. By being accurate, fast, and robust, OrthoRead can support prospective and retrospective clinical studies investigating implant efficacy, and can assist research on fracture healing mechanobiology. © 2015 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 34:1224-1233, 2016.

Will My Tibial Fracture Heal? Predicting Nonunion at the Time of Definitive Fixation Based on Commonly Available Variables

BACKGROUND

Accurate prediction of tibial nonunions has eluded researchers. Reliably predicting tibial nonunions at the time of fixation could change management strategies and stimulate further research.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

We asked (1) whether data from medical records, fracture characteristics, and radiographs obtained at the time of fixation would identify features predictive of tibial fracture nonunion; and (2) whether this information could be used to create a model to assess the chance of nonunion at the time of intramedullary (IM) nail fixation of the tibia.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed all tibial shaft fractures treated at our center from 2007 to 2014. We conducted a literature review and collected data on 35 factors theorized to contribute to delayed bone healing. Patients were followed to fracture healing or surgery for nonunion. Patients with planned prophylactic nonunion surgery were excluded because their nonunions were anticipated and our focus was on unanticipated nonunions. Our cohort consisted of 382 patients treated with IM nails for tibial shaft fractures (nonunion, 56; healed, 326). Bivariate and multivariate regression techniques and stepwise modeling approaches examined the relationship between variables available at definitive fixation. Factors were included in our model if they were identified as having a modest to large effect size (odds ratio > 2) at the p < 0.05 level.

RESULTS

A multiple variable logistic regression model was developed, including seven factors (p < 0.05; odds ratio > 2.0). With these factors, we created the Nonunion Risk Determination (NURD) score. The NURD score assigns 5 points for flaps, 4 points for compartment syndrome, 3 points for chronic condition(s), 2 points for open fractures, 1 point for male gender, and 1 point per grade of American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Status and percent cortical contact. One point each is subtracted for spiral fractures and for low-energy injuries, which were found to be predictive of union. A NURD score of 0 to 5 had a 2% chance of nonunion; 6 to 8, 22%; 9 to 11, 42%; and > 12, 61%.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed nonunion prediction model (NURDS) seems to have potential to allow clinicians to better determine which patients have a higher risk of nonunion. Future work should be directed at prospectively validating and enhancing this model.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, diagnostic study.

An electronically instrumented internal fixator for the assessment of bone healing

Objectives

The monitoring of fracture healing is a complex process. Typically, successive radiographs are performed and an emerging calcification of the fracture area is evaluated. The aim of this study was to investigate whether different bone healing patterns can be distinguished using a telemetric instrumented femoral internal plate fixator.

Materials and Methods

An electronic telemetric system was developed to assess bone healing mechanically. The system consists of a telemetry module which is applied to an internal locking plate fixator, an external reader device, a sensor for measuring externally applied load and a laptop computer with processing software. By correlation between externally applied load and load measured in the implant, the elasticity of the osteosynthesis is calculated. The elasticity decreases with ongoing consolidation of a fracture or nonunion and is an appropriate parameter for the course of bone healing. At our centre, clinical application has been performed in 56 patients suffering nonunion or fracture of the femur.

Results

A total of 39 cases of clinical application were reviewed for this study. In total, four different types of healing curves were observed: fast healing; slow healing; plateau followed by healing; and non-healing.

Conclusion

The electronically instrumented internal fixator proved to be valuable for the assessment of bone healing in difficult healing situations. Cost-effective manufacturing is possible because the used electronic components are derived from large-scale production. The incorporation of microelectronics into orthopaedic implants will be an important innovation in future clinical care.

Cite this article: B. Kienast, B. Kowald, K. Seide, M. Aljudaibi, M. Faschingbauer, C. Juergens, J. Gille. An electronically instrumented internal fixator for the assessment of bone healing. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:191–197. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.55.2000611.

The radiographic union scale in tibial (RUST) fractures: Reliability of the outcome measure at an independent centre

Objectives

The radiographic union score for tibial (RUST) fractures was developed by Whelan et al to assess the healing of tibial fractures following intramedullary nailing. In the current study, the repeatability and reliability of the RUST score was evaluated in an independent centre (a) using the original description, (b) after further interpretation of the description of the score, and (c) with the immediate post-operative radiograph available for comparison.

Methods

A total of 15 radiographs of tibial shaft fractures treated by intramedullary nailing (IM) were scored by three observers using the RUST system. Following discussion on how the criteria of the RUST system should be implemented, 45 sets (i.e. AP and lateral) of radiographs of IM nailed tibial fractures were scored by five observers. Finally, these 45 sets of radiographs were rescored with the baseline post-operative radiograph available for comparison.

Results

The initial intraclass correlation (ICC) on the first 15 sets of radiographs was 0.67 (95% CI 0.63 to 0.71). However, the original description was being interpreted in different ways. After agreeing on the interpretation, the ICC on the second cohort improved to 0.75. The ICC improved even further to 0.79, when the baseline post-operative radiographs were available for comparison.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that the RUST scoring system is a reliable and repeatable outcome measure for assessing tibial fracture healing. Further improvement in the reliability of the scoring system can be obtained if the radiographs are compared with the baseline post-operative radiographs.

Cite this article: Mr J.M. Leow. The radiographic union scale in tibial (RUST) fractures: Reliability of the outcome measure at an independent centre. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:116–121. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.54.2000628.

Current Opinions on Fracture Follow-up: A Survey of OTA Members Regarding Standards of Care and Implications for Clinical Research

OBJECTIVES

To determine current practice standards among Orthopaedic Trauma Association surgeons for postoperative fracture follow-up and to investigate the implications of these standards on clinical research.

DESIGN

Survey.

SETTING

Web-based survey.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred eighty-four orthopaedic trauma surgeons.

METHODS

A web-based questionnaire was distributed to Orthopaedic Trauma Association members to identify standard postoperative radiographic and clinical follow-up duration. Assuming uneventful, complete fracture healing at 3 months, data were collected for 3 generic fracture types (diaphyseal, extra-articular metaphyseal, and intra-articular) and 3 specific fractures (femoral shaft, intertrochanteric, and tibial plateau). Suggested follow-up for clinical research was also investigated.

RESULTS

For extra-articular fractures, standard radiographic and clinical follow-up were considered to be 6 months or less by greater than 70% of respondents. For intra-articular fractures, standard radiographic and clinical follow-up was considered to be 6 months or less by greater than 39% of respondents. The most common responses for radiographic follow-up were 3 months for extra-articular fractures (33%) and 12 months for intra-articular fractures (34%). The most common responses for clinical follow-up were 6 months for extra-articular fractures (37%) and 12 months for intra-articular fractures (35%). The majority (55%) indicated that follow-up to clinical and radiographic healing or the establishment of a nonunion should be the minimum follow-up for clinical fracture studies and 66% recommended follow-up to at least 1 year for functional outcome studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Most surgeons follow-up patients with lower extremity extra-articular fractures (with uneventful healing) radiographically for 3-6 months and clinically for 6 months and slightly longer for intra-articular fractures. Many surgeons cease radiographic and clinical follow-up by 6 months. Therefore, retrospective fracture healing studies can only reasonably expect follow-up for 6 months. Publication requirements for longer follow-up of fracture-related studies would likely eliminated retrospective studies from consideration. Most surgeons support obtaining at least 1-year follow-up for clinical studies that include functional outcome.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level V. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Comparison of outcome of tibial plafond fractures managed by hybrid external fixation versus two-stage management with final plate fixation

BACKGROUND

Tibial platfond fractures are usually associated with massive swelling of the foot and ankle, as well as with open wounds. This swelling may cause significant decrease of the blood flow, so the state of the soft tissue is determinant for the surgical indication and the type of implant. This retrospective study compares the union times in cases of tibial plafond fractures managed with a hybrid external fixation as a definitive procedure versus those managed with a two stage strategy with final plate fixation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective study in a polytrauma referral hospital was performed between 2005 and 2011. Patients with a tibial plafond fracture, managed with a hybrid external fixation as a definitive procedure or managed with a two stage strategy with the final plate fixation were included in the study. Postoperative radiographs were evaluated by two senior surgeons. Fracture healing was defined as callus bridging of one cortex, seen on both lateral and anteroposterior X-ray. The clinical outcome was evaluated by means of 11 points Numerical Rating Scale for pain and The American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society ankle score, assessed at the last followup visit. Thirteen patients had been managed with a hybrid external fixation and 18 with a two-stage strategy with the final plate fixation. There were 14 males and 17 females with a mean age of 48 years (range 19-82 years). The mean followup was 24 months (range 24-70 months).

RESULTS

The mean time from surgery to weight bearing was 7 ± 6.36 days for the hybrid fixation group and 57.43 ± 15.46 days for the plate fixation group (P < 0.0001); and the mean time from fracture to radiological union was 133.82 ± 37.83) and 152.8 ± 72.33 days respectively (P = 0.560).

CONCLUSION

Besides the differences between groups regarding the baseline characteristics of patients, the results of this study suggest that in cases of tibial plafond fractures, the management with a hybrid external fixation as a definitive procedure might involve a faster union than a two-stage management with final plate fixation.

Comparison of Hallux Interphalangeal Joint Arthrodesis Fixation Techniques: A Retrospective Multicenter Study

Few studies have investigated the complications that occur after hallux interphalangeal joint arthrodesis. The present study evaluated complications in 152 patients aged 18 to 80 years from 2005 to 2012 from 4 different academic institutions after hallux interphalangeal joint arthrodesis. Overall, 65.8% of the patients had ≥1 complication. Infections occurred in 16.5%, dehiscence in 12.5%, and reoperations in 27.0%. The clinical nonunion rate was ≥17.8%, and the radiographic nonunion rate was ≥13.8%. After logistic regression analysis, only the study site and peripheral neuropathy were associated with having ≥1 complication (p < .01 and p < .05, respectively). Single screw fixation compared with other fixation did not have a statistically significant influence on the postoperative complications. However, when fixation was expanded to 4 categories, single screw fixation had lower infection and reoperation rates than either crossed Kirschner wires or other fixation category but not compared with crossed screws on multivariate logistic regression analysis. Although additional studies are warranted, the findings from the present study might aid in both the prognosis of complications and the support of the use of a single screw over crossed Kirchner wire fixation in hallux interphalangeal joint arthrodesis.