Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature

The mediating effect of Internet gaming disorder's symptoms on loneliness and aggression among undergraduate students and working adults in Malaysia

Insufficient attention has been given to the integration of the mediating effect of Internet gaming disorder (IGD) symptoms on loneliness and four components of aggression-physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility-in the Malaysian context. In the present study, 410 participants with (a) at least 1 year of Internet gaming experience and (b) between ages 20- to 39 years were recruited using the probability proportional to size sampling method. Participants were undergraduate students and working adults. Self-reported questionnaires (the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale, University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale, and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire) were used. The present study found that loneliness positively predicted four components of aggression (i.e., anger, hostility, physical aggression, and verbal aggression) and symptoms of IGD. Relationships between loneliness and the four components of aggression were partially mediated by IGD symptoms. The present study enriches and consolidates existing empirical evidence, particularly in the Malaysian context. If the mediating effect is not emphasized, it may lead to spurious conclusions that can significantly diminish the effectiveness of interventions that are meant to manage aggression.

Violent video games exposure and aggression: The role of moral disengagement, anger, hostility, and disinhibition

Based on the General Aggression Model (GAM), the current study investigated the interactive effect of personal factors (e.g., sensation-seeking) and situational factors (e.g., violent video games exposure [VVGE]) on the trait aggressive behavior, and the mediating role of individual difference trait (e.g., moral disengagement, anger, and hostility). We recruited 547 undergraduates (48.45% male) from five Chinese universities. The results showed that VVGE was positively associated with moral disengagement, disinhibition, and the four aggressive traits (physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility), which were positively associated with each other. Moral disengagement was positively associated with both the disinhibition and the four aggressive traits. Disinhibition was positively associated with the four aggressive traits as well. When controlled for gender, moral disengagement, anger, and hostility wholly mediated the relationship between VVGE and aggression, but the moderation effect of disinhibition was not significant. These findings support the framework of GAM and indicate that moral disengagement, anger, and hostility may be the factors that increase the risk of a higher level of aggression following repeated exposure to violent video games.

The Association Between Video Gaming and Psychological Functioning

Video gaming is an extremely popular leisure-time activity with more than two billion users worldwide (Newzoo, 2017). However, the media as well as professionals have underscored the potential dangers of excessive video gaming. With the present research, we aimed to shed light on the relation between video gaming and gamers' psychological functioning. Questionnaires on personality and psychological health as well as video gaming habits were administered to 2,734 individuals (2,377 male, 357 female, M age = 23.06, SD age = 5.91). Results revealed a medium-sized negative correlation between problematic video gaming and psychological functioning with regard to psychological symptoms, affectivity, coping, and self-esteem. Moreover, gamers' reasons for playing and their preferred game genres were differentially related to psychological functioning with the most notable findings for distraction-motivated players as well as action game players. Future studies are needed to examine whether these psychological health risks reflect the causes or consequences of video gaming.

Relationships Among Violent and Non-Violent Video Games, Anxiety, Self-Esteem, and Aggression in Female and Male Gamers

This study examines the differences in anxiety, self-esteem, and aggression levels between players of violent and non-violent video game and its connection to gender and age. This survey-based research utilizes survey data from 851 video gamers. The study included 61% men and 39% women. The ages of the participants ranged from 18 to 45. Participants were administered an anonymous survey including demographics, a questionnaire for video game habits, Rosenberg's self-esteem scale, a state anxiety inventory (STAI-S), and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ). The results revealed significant differences between males and females, as well as between younger and older gamers. Despite the majority of research showing a positive relationship between violent video game exposure and aggression levels, the results suggest that of the preference for a violent video game over a non-violent one is not, in itself, a cause for increased anxiety, self-esteem, and aggression levels.

PG-13 Rated Movie Violence and Societal Violence: is there a Link?

Recent scholarship has suggested that the frequency of violence in PG-13 rated movies has increased in recent years. Although some scholars have expressed concern that such an increase may have public health implications, this has remained untested. In the current article, trends in PG-13 movie violence are tested against trends in violence in society, including both homicides and youth violence. Raw correlations suggest that PG-13 rated movie violence is inversely related to actual violence in society. However, controlling for autocorrelations suggests that the best interpretation is that PG-13 rated movie violence is unrelated to violence in society. Caution is advised for scholars to avoid implying that PG-13 rated movie violence may have a causal effect on crime in society.

Gaming With Stigma: Analysis of Messages About Mental Illnesses in Video Games

BACKGROUND

Video game playing is a daily activity for many youths that replaces other media forms (eg, television); it serves as an important source of knowledge and can potentially impact their attitudes and behaviors. Researchers are, thus, concerned with the impact of video gaming on youth (eg, for promoting prosocial or antisocial behavior). Studies have also begun to explore players' experience of gameplay and video game messages about violence, sexism, and racism; however, little is known about the impact of commercial video games in the sharing and shaping of knowledge, and messages about mental illness.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review was to identify how mental illness, especially psychosis, is portrayed in commercial video games.

METHODS

We performed keyword searches on games made available between January 2016 and June 2017 on Steam (a popular personal computer gaming platform). A total of 789 games were identified and reviewed to assess whether their game content was related to mental illness. At the end of the screening phase, a total of 100 games were retained.

RESULTS

We used a game elements framework (characters, game environment/atmosphere, goals, etc) to describe and unpack messages about mental health and illness in video games. The majority of the games we reviewed (97%, 97/100) portrayed mental illness in negative, misleading, and problematic ways (associating it with violence, fear, insanity, hopelessness, etc). Furthermore, some games portrayed mental illness as manifestations or consequences of supernatural phenomena or paranormal experiences. Mental illness was associated with mystery, the unpredictable, and as an obscure illness; its treatment was also associated with uncertainties, as game characters with mental illness had to undergo experimental treatment to get better. Unfortunately, little or no hope for recovery was present in the identified video games, where mental illness was often presented as an ongoing struggle and an endless battle with the mind and oneself.

CONCLUSIONS

The game elements of the identified commercial video games included mental illness, about which many perpetuated well-known stereotypes and prejudices. We discuss the key findings in relation to current evidence on the impact of media portrayals of mental illness and stigma. Furthermore, we reflect on the ability of serious video games to promote alternative messages about mental illness and clinical practices. Future research is needed to investigate the impact that such messages have on players and to explore the role that video games can play in fostering alternative messages to reduce the stigma associated with mental illness.

Lyrics only or lyrics with music? The effect of different lyric conditions on prosocial-related outcomes

Several studies have examined the effect of music on prosocial behavior. However, they have not been able to explain whether lyrics with music or lyrics alone influence prosocial behavior. We conducted two studies to investigate this issue. We first validated the influence of prosocial lyrics (relative to neutral lyrics) on prosocial cognition and prosocial emotion (Study 1). Next, we examined the influence of different types of lyrics on prosocial behavior (willingness to participate in unpaid experiments) among college students under different lyric conditions (Study 2). The results are partly consistent with previous findings, and further reveal that lyrics may have an effect on prosocial cognition and emotion, and that different lyric conditions have a significant influence on prosocial behavior. Overall, we used the short-term effect of the general learning model (GLM) to verify that prosocial lyrics in music can promote prosocial behavior among college students.

Smartphone and video game use and perceived effects in a community mental health service

BACKGROUND

Gaming is a growing area and there are conflicting reports on its harms and benefits. There is also increasing interest in the use of gaming clinically.

AIMS

This research aims to enhance our understanding of video and smartphone game use, and perceptions, among outpatients attending an Irish general adult mental health service.

METHODS

An anonymised, opportunistic survey of outpatients attending an Irish general adult mental health service was completed. Respondents were self-selecting and self-administering of the survey.

RESULTS

The response rate was 13% (n = 93). Younger patients were significantly more likely to own a smartphone (p = 0.00). Those who played videogames were significantly younger than those who did not (p = 0.00). Younger age groups were significantly more likely to have heard of (p = 0.00), and used (p = 0.01), Pokémon GO. Over 19% (n = 18) of respondents played video games. Nearly 24% (n = 16) of those with a smartphone played games on it daily. No respondents reported specifically using games for health reasons. The two individuals who found Pokémon GO usage increased their exercise levels, also reported mental health benefits from it. Individuals' gaming use and age did not significantly impact on whether they were positive or negative in their opinions towards video and smartphone games.

CONCLUSIONS

There is an opportunity to deliver interventions to Irish mental health service outpatients through smartphone and video games. Our small study suggests this to be underutilised currently. As more frequent users, perhaps younger individuals would most benefit from gamification of interventions and the use of existing games that have possible physical and mental health benefits. This requires further research.

Movie violence acutely affects food choices in young adults

BACKGROUND

Extensive research has been conducted to investigate the effects of media violence on attitudes, behaviors, and cardiovascular health; however, only few studies have examined its effect on appetite, eating behavior and food preferences. Little attention has been given to understand how movie genre manipulates the physiology and the eating behavior of individuals. The present study aimed at investigating the acute effect of violence content in movies on appetite perception, heart rate and blood pressure, along with food preferences and intake in young individuals.

METHODS

Participants (n = 84) were randomly assigned to either watch a violent movie or a non-violent narrative movie. Measurements including anthropometry, heart rate, blood pressure and grip strength were taken and appetite as well as stress perception were assessed. Subjects were then provided with an individual snack tray containing various items to be consumed ad libitum.

RESULTS

Post intervention, the experimental group (EG) had a higher consumption of fatty (t (82) = 2.28, p = 0.025, d = 1.52) and salty (t (82) = 2.61, p = 0.01, d = 0.71) food items compared to the control group (CG). Out of the 42 participants in the EG 62% consumed >2 fatty items and 71.4% consumed >2 salty food items. No significant difference in the consumption of sugary items was observed between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Movie violence affects eating behavior and may promote weight gain.

Implicit violent imagery processing among fans and non-fans of music with violent themes

It is suggested that long-term exposure to violent media may decrease sensitivity to depictions of violence. However, it is unknown whether persistent exposure to music with violent themes affects implicit violent imagery processing. Using a binocular rivalry paradigm, we investigated whether the presence of violent music influences conscious awareness of violent imagery among fans and non-fans of such music. Thirty-two fans and 48 non-fans participated in the study. Violent and neutral pictures were simultaneously presented one to each eye, and participants indicated which picture they perceived (i.e. violent percept, neutral percept or blend of two) via key presses, while they heard Western popular music with lyrics that expressed happiness or Western extreme metal music with lyrics that expressed violence. We found both fans and non-fans of violent music exhibited a general negativity bias for violent imagery over neutral imagery regardless of the music genres. For non-fans, this bias was stronger while listening to music that expressed violence than while listening to music that expressed happiness. For fans of violent music, however, the bias was the same while listening to music that expressed either violence or happiness. We discussed these results in view of current debates on the impact of violent media.

The influence of affective state on respiratory muscle activity

Measures of neural respiratory drive through the use of electromyography of the parasternal intercostal muscles (EMGpara) are accurate markers of respiratory load and are reflective of pulmonary function. A previous observation of a significant reduction in EMGpara from a first to second measurement occasion was attributed to participants' acclimatization to the laboratory environment and a reduction in anxiety. This study therefore aimed to investigate whether manipulation of participants' affective state would influence EMGpara and related variables. Healthy adult participants underwent measurement of EMGpara and respiratory flow and volume during exposure to four conditions: no stimulus, music, and tense and calm videos. Respiratory rate (RR), raw neural respiratory drive index (rawNRDI, the product of EMGpara in microvolts and RR) and minute ventilation (VE) differed significantly across conditions: RR and VE were significantly higher in the tense condition than all other conditions (all P<0·05); rawNRDI was higher in the tense compared to the calm video condition (P = 0·03). There was also a significant relationship between EMGpara and subjective tension ratings (measured via visual analogue scale) in the tense condition (Spearman's rho = 0·508, P = 0·016), with multivariate modelling indicating significant interactions between rawNRDI and subjective ratings of both tension and calmness. This suggests that anxiety could contribute to elevated respiratory muscle activity and ventilation. Greater consideration should be given to the influence of anxiety when undertaking measurement of respiratory muscle activity to ensure data accurately represent underlying respiratory load.

The Relation of Violent Video Games to Adolescent Aggression: An Examination of Moderated Mediation Effect

To assess the moderated mediation effect of normative beliefs about aggression and family environment on exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, the subjects self-reported their exposure to violent video games, family environment, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggressive behavior. The results showed that there was a significant positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression; normative beliefs about aggression had a mediation effect on exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, while family environment moderated the first part of the mediation process. For individuals with a good family environment, exposure to violent video games had only a direct effect on aggression; however, for those with poor family environment, it had both direct and indirect effects mediated by normative beliefs about aggression. This moderated mediation model includes some notions of General Aggression Model (GAM) and Catalyst Model (CM), which helps shed light on the complex mechanism of violent video games influencing adolescent aggression.

Hands Up! Atypical Defensive Reactions in Heavy Players of Violent Video Games When Exposed to Gun-Attack Pictures

Threatening cues and surrounding contexts trigger specific defensive response patterns. Posturography, a technique for measuring postural strategies, has been used to evaluate motor defensive reactions in humans. When exposed to gun pointed pictures, humans were shown to exhibit an immobility reaction. Short and long-term exposure to violent video games was shown to be a causal risk factor for increased violent and aggressive behavior. Assaultive violence with a gun is a major trigger for motor defensive reactions, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most characteristic psychiatric sequelae. Recent studies point to links between PTSD symptoms and emotional shortfalls in non-clinical trauma-exposed samples. The present study investigated defensive reactions to gun threat and PTSD symptoms in heavy players of violent video games compared to non-players. Male university students were screened according to use of violent video games and divided in three groups: non-players, moderate players, and heavy players. Stimuli were pictures depicting a man pointing a gun directed at the participant. In matched control pictures, non-lethal objects replaced the gun. Posturography was recorded and PTSD symptoms were assessed. When exposed to the threat pictures, non-players exhibited the expected reduction in amplitude of body sway (immobility), heavy players presented atypical augmented amplitude of body sway, and moderate players showed intermediate reactivity. Heavy players presented a significant distinct reaction compared to non-players. They also scored significantly higher in PTSD symptoms than non-players. Disadvantageous defensive reactions and higher vulnerability to PTSD symptoms, revealed in the present study, add to other shortcomings for heavy players.

Sensation Seeking and Impulsivity Can Increase Exposure to Risky Media and Moderate Its Effects on Adolescent Risk Behaviors

Media exposure to risky behaviors (e.g., alcohol use, violence) has been associated with adolescent engagement in risk-taking behaviors, but not all adolescents are equally at risk. Here we focus on individual differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking and assess their effects on the relation between media risk exposure and adolescent risk behavior. Survey data from 1990 Black and White US adolescents (mean age = 15.6 ± 1.10 years; 48% female) and content analysis of top-grossing films and popular TV shows were analyzed using linear regression models. High levels of impulsivity and sensation seeking were associated with greater exposure to risky media content, and also operated as moderators, exacerbating the impact of media risk exposure on adolescent risk behaviors. Prevention efforts targeting negative effects of media on adolescent health should prioritize youth with high levels of impulsivity and sensation seeking.

Screen viewing behavior and sleep duration among children aged 2 and below

Background

Few studies have investigated the association between screen viewing (SV) and sleep duration among young children. This study aims to examine the association between total and device-specific SV and sleep duration among children aged 2 and below.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 714 Singaporean children aged 2 years and below. Parents were recruited during routine well-child clinic visits from two national polyclinics. In Singapore, all parents visit well-child clinics with their children at regular intervals for routine check-ups and vaccinations. Socio-demographic characteristics, duration of total and device-specific SV, and sleep duration were reported by parents via interviewer-administered questionnaires. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to assess associations between various types of SV and sleep duration, adjusted for socio-demographic variables. Due to significant interaction between SV and age, stratified analyses for children aged less than 6 months and those aged 7–24 months were performed.

Results

The prevalence of daily SV among children was 53.1%; 28.3% in children up to 6 months and 73.8% in children aged 7 to 24 months. TV viewing was reported for 44.3% of all children and mobile device SV for 30.1%. Children’s average sleep duration was 13.9 (SD = 3.5) hours daily and younger children had longer sleep duration than older ones (up to 6 months: mean = 15.6 h, SD = 3.9; 7–24 months: mean = 12.4 h, SD = 2.2; P < 0.01). In the regression analysis among all children, each 1 h per day increment in total SV was significantly associated with 0.26 h shorter sleep duration with similar significant associations for TV (β = − 0.28 h, 95%CI: -0.50, − 0.06) and mobile devices (β = − 0.35 h, 95%CI: -0.61, − 0.09). Stratified analysis revealed significantly greater reductions in sleep with higher SV among children aged 6 months and below (β = − 0.73 h, 95%CI: -1.12, − 0.34), while associations were weaker in older children (β = − 0.13 h, 95% CI: -0.24, − 0.01).

Conclusions

This study provides evidence for a substantial association between longer SV and shorter sleep duration among very young children. These associations appeared stronger among children aged 6 months and below as compared with those aged 7 to 24 months. Further studies are warranted to confirm our findings.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-018-6385-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Which Data to Meta-Analyze, and How?

Abstract. Which data to analyze, and how, are fundamental questions of all empirical research. As there are always numerous flexibilities in data-analytic decisions (a “garden of forking paths”), this poses perennial problems to all empirical research. Specification-curve analysis and multiverse analysis have recently been proposed as solutions to these issues. Building on the structural analogies between primary data analysis and meta-analysis, we transform and adapt these approaches to the meta-analytic level, in tandem with combinatorial meta-analysis. We explain the rationale of this idea, suggest descriptive and inferential statistical procedures, as well as graphical displays, provide code for meta-analytic practitioners to generate and use these, and present a fully worked real example from digit ratio (2D:4D) research, totaling 1,592 meta-analytic specifications. Specification-curve and multiverse meta-analysis holds promise to resolve conflicting meta-analyses, contested evidence, controversial empirical literatures, and polarized research, and to mitigate the associated detrimental effects of these phenomena on research progress.

Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study

It is a widespread concern that violent video games promote aggression, reduce pro-social behaviour, increase impulsivity and interfere with cognition as well as mood in its players. Previous experimental studies have focussed on short-term effects of violent video gameplay on aggression, yet there are reasons to believe that these effects are mostly the result of priming. In contrast, the present study is the first to investigate the effects of long-term violent video gameplay using a large battery of tests spanning questionnaires, behavioural measures of aggression, sexist attitudes, empathy and interpersonal competencies, impulsivity-related constructs (such as sensation seeking, boredom proneness, risk taking, delay discounting), mental health (depressivity, anxiety) as well as executive control functions, before and after 2 months of gameplay. Our participants played the violent video game Grand Theft Auto V, the non-violent video game The Sims 3 or no game at all for 2 months on a daily basis. No significant changes were observed, neither when comparing the group playing a violent video game to a group playing a non-violent game, nor to a passive control group. Also, no effects were observed between baseline and posttest directly after the intervention, nor between baseline and a follow-up assessment 2 months after the intervention period had ended. The present results thus provide strong evidence against the frequently debated negative effects of playing violent video games in adults and will therefore help to communicate a more realistic scientific perspective on the effects of violent video gaming.

Com Grandes Poderes Vem… O Que? Super-Heróis, Agressividade e Pró-Sociabilidade em Adolescentes

Os super-heróis são parte da cultura contemporânea, tendo cada vez mais destaque, especialmente entre os adolescentes. Nesse sentido, compreender a influência desse tipo de personagem é necessário para o contexto social e educacional. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi compreender as relações entre o contato com super-heróis, a agressividade e a pró-sociabilidade, considerando o impacto da personalidade e do gênero dos participantes. Ao todo, 240 estudantes de uma escola pública entre 12 e 18 anos, responderam aos seguintes instrumentos: Escala de Contato com Super-heróis, Questionário de Agressão, Escala de Pró-sociabilidade, Big Five Inventory-10 e perguntas sociodemográficas. Foram utilizadas análise fatorial, análises descritivas, correlações bivariada e parcial e regressão linear múltipla para analisar as informações. Os resultados indicaram diferenças na relação dos construtos em respondentes do gênero feminino (quando o contato com super-heróis se associou positivamente à pró-sociabilidade) e masculino (quando o contato associou-se negativamente à pró-sociabilidade e positivamente à raiva). Contudo, não foram observadas relações de predição em nenhum dos casos. Assim, existe a possibilidade de propor meios para a concepção de intervenções que utilizem super-heróis para discutir o que leva alguém a ser agressivo ou pró-social.

A Latent Class Approach for Classifying the Problem and Disordered Gamers in a Group of Adolescence

Gaming disorder is not yet recognized as a formal psychiatric disorder, and consensus is still lacking in the field concerning the definition of gaming disorder and what methods should be used to measure it. In order to deal with methodological challenges related to previously suggested approaches, the aim of the present study was to develop an alternative assessment procedure for gaming disorder using a latent class cluster approach, and to compare the criterion validity of this procedure with existing assessment procedures. A representative sample of 3,000 adolescents (n = 1,500 female) aged 17.5 years was drawn from the National Registry, and 2,055 participants responded (yielding a response rate of 70.3%). The Gaming Addiction Scale for Adolescents was used to measure gaming disorder and measures of loneliness, anxiety, depression, and aggression were used to test criterion validity. A model with five Latent Class Clusters represented the best fit [BIC(LL) = 21,253,7; L² = 3,881,204; df = 1,978; Class. Err. = 0.1239]. The five different groups were labeled never symptoms (46.2%), rarely symptoms (22.3%), occasionally symptoms (23.5%), problem gamers (6.9%), and disordered gamers (1.2%). The groups displayed different probabilities of responses (never/rarely/sometimes/often/very often) to the seven Gaming Addiction Scale items. Regarding criterion validity, MANOVA revealed a significant overall main effect of latent classes [F_{(20, 6359)} = 13.50, p < 0.001; Wilks Lambda = 0.871]. All dependent variables (loneliness, depression, anxiety, verbal, and physical aggression) reached statistical significance when results from the dependent variables were considered separately. Comparing the present approach with previous suggested classifications of gaming addiction offered by Lemmens et al. and Charlton and Danforth, the present approach showed greater specificity in terms of number of classes identified. We conclude that the Latent Class approach identifying five different groups of gamers offers a more refined view on addiction compared to previous assessment procedures.

Does playing video games effect cognitive abilities in Pakistani children?

Objective:

To find out the effect of playing video games on cognitive abilities among teenagers.

Methods:

A comparative cross sectional study was conducted at two schools in Rawalpindi from August 2014 till February 2015. A sample size of 171 was calculated by using WHO sample size calculator using non-probability convenient sampling technique. A mixed questionnaire was used as a data collection tool and two groups were defined as video gamers and non-video gamers. Video gamers were those students who were using video games for two hours or more. Cognitive ability of the students were assess by standardized questionnaire named Wonderlic Cognitive Ability Test Questionnaire. Data were entered and analyzed in SPSS version 20.

Results:

There were 93 (54.4%) gamers whereas 78(45.4%) were non-gamers. Mean age of the participants was 18.86+1.46 years. Gamers with correct answers to knowledge, analogy, processing speed, deductive reasoning, mathematical intelligence were 57(61.3%), 67(72%), 68 (73%), 58 (62.4%) and 73(78.5%) respectively. Significant association was found between gamer status and gender (p=0.023), analogy (p=0.049), processing speed (p<0.001), deductive reasoning (p=0.003) and mathematical intelligence (p<0.001). There was no significant association of gamer status with knowledge (p=0.188).

Conclusion:

Gamers exhibit better range of cognitive abilities specifically involving analogy, processing speed, deductive reasoning and mathematical intelligence. In this study, those who play video games on long term basis, showed improvement in cognitive abilities, in comparison to those who do not indulge in gaming activities.

Adult Perception Toward Videogames and Physical Activity Using Pokémon Go

Objective: The purpose of the study was to determine perception of videogames and the use Pokémon Go in Costa Rica. Materials and Methods: A national representative sample (n = 1059) of adults aged 18 years and older was chosen to complete a face-to-face survey on videogame perceptions and the use of Pokémon Go. Statistical analyses included 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) around the estimate, multiple regression, cluster, and factor analysis. Results: The 85.2% of the population (n = 866) were familiar with videogames, especially those in the 18- to 29-year age group (96.3%) and college education (94.8%). Perceptions about videogames were negative (Addictive = 89.6%, Violence = 75.5%, Bad for health = 51.3%) and positive (Stimulate mental abilities = 59.6%, Relaxing = 55.2%, Improve family communication = 49.4%); and 28.4% perceived that people without responsibilities played videogames. Perceptions were different by age group and educational level. Age and gender were significant predictors of attitudes toward videogame playing. Pokémon Go was played by 3.9% of those respondents who knew or had heard about videogames, who reported spending 6.7 h/week (95% CI = 3.9-9.5) playing the game, walking 24.7 km (95% CI = 12.5-36.9), and covering 70.4 km (95% CI = 45.3-95.5) by other transportation means. Conclusions: Positive and negative perceptions toward videogames mediated by age and education level were found in a Costa Rican sample. Age and gender predicted attitudes toward videogame playing. A small number of participants played Pokémon Go, which might suggest that this videogame was not engaging in this population.

Screen media use and ADHD-related behaviors: Four decades of research

The diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among children and adolescents has increased considerably over the past decades. Scholars and health professionals alike have expressed concern about the role of screen media in the rise in ADHD diagnosis. However, the extent to which screen media use and ADHD are linked remains a point of debate. To understand the current state of the field and, ultimately, move the field forward, we provide a systematic review of the literature on the relationship between children and adolescents' screen media use and ADHD-related behaviors (i.e., attention problems, hyperactivity, and impulsivity). Using the Differential Susceptibility to Media effects Model as a theoretical lens, we systematically organize the existing literature, identify potential shortcomings in this literature, and provide directions for future research. The available evidence suggests a statistically small relationship between media and ADHD-related behaviors. Evidence also suggests that individual child differences, such as gender and trait aggression, may moderate this relationship. There is a clear need for future research that investigates causality, underlying mechanisms, and differential susceptibility to the effects of screen media use on ADHD-related behaviors. It is only through a richer empirical body that we will be able to fully understand the media-ADHD relationship.

The Ethics of Virtual Reality Technology: Social Hazards and Public Policy Recommendations

This article explores four major areas of moral concern regarding virtual reality (VR) technologies. First, VR poses potential mental health risks, including Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder. Second, VR technology raises serious concerns related to personal neglect of users' own actual bodies and real physical environments. Third, VR technologies may be used to record personal data which could be deployed in ways that threaten personal privacy and present a danger related to manipulation of users' beliefs, emotions, and behaviors. Finally, there are other moral and social risks associated with the way VR blurs the distinction between the real and illusory. These concerns regarding VR naturally raise questions about public policy. The article makes several recommendations for legal regulations of VR that together address each of the above concerns. It is argued that these regulations would not seriously threaten personal liberty but rather would protect and enhance the autonomy of VR consumers.

Real-time monitoring prefrontal activities during online video game playing by functional near-infrared spectroscopy

A growing body of literature has suggested that video game playing can induce functional and structural plasticity of the brain. The underlying mechanisms, however, remain poorly understood. In this study, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to record prefrontal activities in 24 experienced game players when they played a massively multiplayer online battle arena video game, League of Legends (LOL), under naturalistic conditions. It was observed that game onset was associated with significant activations in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and concomitant deactivations in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and frontal pole area (FPA). Game events, such as slaying an enemy and being slain by an enemy evoked region-specific time-locked hemodynamic/oxygenation responses in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). It was proposed that the VLPFC activities during LOL playing are likely responses to visuo-motor task load of the game, while the DLPFC/FPA activities may be involved in the constant shifts of attentional states and allocation of cognitive resources required by game playing. The present study demonstrated that it is feasible to use fNIRS to monitor real-time prefrontal activity during online video game playing.

North American Football Fans Show Neurofunctional Differences in Response to Violence: Implications for Public Health and Policy

While social and behavioral effects of violence in the media have been studied extensively, much less is known about how sports affect perceptions of violence. The current study examined neurofunctional differences between fans and non-fans of North American football (a contact sport) while viewing violent imagery. Participants viewed images of violence in both football and non-football settings while high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were acquired from their brains. Neurological activation was compared between these violence types and between groups. Fans of football show diminished activation in brain regions involved in pain perception and empathy such as the anterior cingulate cortex, fusiform gyrus, insula, and temporal pole when viewing violence in the context of football compared to more broadly violent images. Non-fans of football showed no such effect for the types of violent imagery and had higher activation levels than fans of football for the specified brain regions. These differences show that fans of football may perceive violence differently when it is in the context of football. These fan attitudes have potential policy implications for addressing the issue of concussions in North American football.

Parents' Knowledge and Beliefs about the Impact of Exposure to Media Violence on Children's Aggression

The current study aimed to assess Jordanian parents' knowledge and beliefs about the effects of violent media on children's aggressive behavior. A sample of 262 parents of children aged 6-11 years completed a Media Quotient questionnaire about children's media habits, media effects, and children's aggressive behavior. Parents reported that their children spend an average of 4.83 h (SD = 2.12) watching TV, 3.20 h (SD = 2.29) playing video games, 1.07 h (SD = 0.88) listening to music, and only 0.52 min (SD = 0.67) reading for pleasure per day. Parents have a moderate level of knowledge about the media effect (M = 15.49, SD = 3.439). Children of parents who have adequate knowledge about the media effect, spend less time watching TV (r = -.355, p < .001), playing video games (r = -.265, p < .001), and listening to music (r = -.347, p < .001). Ninety-two percent (n = 241) of parents were concerned about the amount of sexual and of violent content their children see in movies or on TV. Children who spend more time playing video games (r = -.201, p = .004) show aggressive relational behavior. This study suggests that increasing parents' knowledge of media of evidence-based programs may have a protective effect on children's behavior.

Potential Adverse Effects of Violent Video Gaming: Interpersonal- Affective Traits Are Rather Impaired Than Disinhibition in Young Adults

The increasing trend of mass shootings, which were associated with excessive use of violent video games, fueled the debate of possible effects violent video games may have on adolescents and young adults. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible link between violent video gaming effects and the disposition of adverse behavior traits such as interpersonal-affective deficits and disinhibition. Data of 167 young adults, collected by an online questionnaire battery, were analyzed for lifetime video game exposure differences (i.e., non-gamers, non-violent video gamers, stopped violent video game users, and ongoing violent video game users) as well as for recent exposure effects on adverse behavior traits (Levenson’s Psychopathy Scale), while controlling for other potentially confounding lifestyle factors. While interpersonal-affective deficits were significantly higher in participants with ongoing violent video game exposure compared to non-gamers and non-violent video gamers, disinhibition was significantly higher in both – stopped and ongoing – violent video game exposure groups compared to non-gamers. Recent violent video game exposure was a stronger predictor for interpersonal-affective deficits, but was also significant for disinhibition. Considering that we observed small to medium effects in a sample of young adults with little to moderate use of violent video games highlights the importance of further investigating the potential adverse effects of violent video games on quality of social relationships.

The roles of selective attention and desensitization in the association between video gameplay and aggression: An ERP investigation

A number of studies have indicated that violent video gameplay is associated with higher levels of aggression and that desensitization and selective attention to violent content may contribute to this association. Utilizing an emotionally-charged rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task, the current study used two event-related potentials (ERPs) - the N1 and P3 - that have been associated with selective attention and desensitization as neurocognitive mechanisms potentially underlying the connection between gameplay and higher levels of aggression. Results indicated that video game players and non-players differed in N1 and P3 activation when engaged with emotionally-charged imagery. Additionally, P3 amplitudes moderated the association between video gameplay and aggression, indicating that players who display small P3 amplitudes also showed heightened levels of aggression. Follow-up moderational analyses revealed that individuals who play games for many hours and show more negative N1 amplitudes show smaller P3 activation. Together, our results suggest that selective attention to violent content and desensitization both play key roles in the association between video gameplay and aggression.

Exposure to online hate material and subjective well-being

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between subjective well-being (SWB) and exposure to online hate material using samples of Finnish and American youth and young adults. The authors aim to identify socio-demographic determinants of SWB and the social ties prevalent both online and offline that may be relevant to the discussion of how hate material associates with well-being.

Design/methodology/approach

The data are derived from online survey responses from both Finnish (n=555) and American (n=1,014) young people aged 15-30. The authors control for the possible effects of social trust, offline friendships, online victimisation and economic status, which have been found to associate with SWB in earlier studies.

Findings

The findings show a clear association that highlights the uniformity in how negatively intended material online affects young people, despite the inclusion of a cross-national comparison. The study confirms previous work concerning happiness and life satisfaction.

Research limitations/implications

The survey used was not designed solely to address issues of SWB and as such a more targeted set of questions may have resulted in more in-depth data. Also, structural determinants of SWB, social spheres, and tie strength were analysed through proxy measures.

Practical implications

The findings concerning new variables linked to well-being and victimization in the cross-national context provide a new point of reference in terms of online hate being associated with happiness.

Originality/value

The authors consider a number of descriptive characteristics, determining the relationship between these variables and participants’ happiness. Through this cross-national data set, new comparisons were made possible between internet users of both countries. The study combines many earlier findings with new variables and theoretical frameworks to add new perspectives to the understanding of how well-being is affected online among young people.

Individual and social correlates of aggressive behavior in Lebanese undergraduates: The role of trait emotional intelligence

This study investigates the relationship between Aggressive Behavior and individual factors, namely trait Emotional Intelligence, personality dimensions, emotion regulation and self-worth, as well as social factors, namely accepting/rejecting parenting styles and exposure to violence. The sample consisted of 252 university students in Lebanon (154 females), from 16 to 30 years old. Results from hierarchical regression analyses (controlling for age and gender and in the presence of social and individual predictors) showed that the Self-control and Emotionality factors of trait Emotional Intelligence were significant negative predictors of Aggressive Behavior while controlling for age and gender and in the presence of social and individual predictors). Exposure to violence and openness to experience also predicted Aggressive Behavior. Implications for future research and limitations of the present study are discussed.

Spontaneous Brain Activity Did Not Show the Effect of Violent Video Games on Aggression: A Resting-State fMRI Study

A great many of empirical researches have proved that longtime exposure to violent video game can lead to a series of negative effects. Although research has focused on the neural basis of the correlation between violent video game and aggression, little is known whether the spontaneous brain activity is associated with violent video game exposure. To address this question, we measured the spontaneous brain activity using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We used the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) and fractional ALFF (fALFF) to quantify spontaneous brain activity. The results showed there is no significant difference in ALFF, or fALFF, between violent video game group and the control part, indicating that long time exposure to violent video games won't significantly influence spontaneous brain activity, especially the core brain regions such as execution control, moral judgment and short-term memory. This implies the adverse impact of violent video games is exaggerated.

Exposure to video games: effects on sleep and on post-sleep cognitive abilities. A sistematic review of experimental evidences

The public opinion is ever more interested and worried about possible effects of exposure to VGs (video games) on human life and well-being. Scientific literature shows several evidences highlighting negative outcomes on behavioural, emotive, cognitive and physical health spheres. All these aspects are intrinsically linked to sleep quality and quantity and to date very few studies directly investigated the effects of videogame (VG) exposure on sleep and post-sleep cognitive status. The aim of the present systematic review is to examine the impact that the exposure to VGs can produce on sleep pattern and the consequent post-sleep cognitive abilities. To this extent, only studies directly investigating the effects of VGs on sleep features and post-sleep cognitive abilities have been selected and discussed. Data currently present in literature show the alteration of sleep pattern after exposure to VGs. The analysis indicated a reduction of Total Sleep Time (TST) and an increase of Sleep Onset Latency (SOL), modifications of the REM sleep and Slow Wave Sleep (SWS), and increased sleepiness and self-perceived fatigue. Moreover, post-sleep sustained attention and verbal memory also appear to be impaired. It can be concluded that playing VGs for long periods, particularly in the evening, is a significant, common and probable cause of sleep problems: evening exposure to VGs, in fact, can bring to insufficient and low quality sleep, with possible effects on cognition in the subsequent waking days. Potential methodological flaws and limitations of these studies have also been described and discussed. Because of the very limited number of available study on this topic further research is strongly needed.

Differences by Sex in Association of Mental Health With Video Gaming or Other Nonacademic Computer Use Among US Adolescents

Introduction

Although numerous studies have examined the association between playing video games and cognitive skills, aggression, and depression, few studies have examined how these associations differ by sex. The objective of our study was to determine differences by sex in association between video gaming or other nonacademic computer use and depressive symptoms, suicidal behavior, and being bullied among adolescents in the United States.

Methods

We used data from the 2015 Youth Risk Behavior Survey on 15,624 US high school students. Rao–Scott χ² tests, which were adjusted for the complex sampling design, were conducted to assess differences by sex in the association of mental health with video gaming or other nonacademic computer use.

Results

Approximately one-fifth (19.4%) of adolescents spent 5 or more hours daily on video gaming or other nonacademic computer use, and 17.9% did not spend any time in those activities. A greater percentage of female adolescents than male adolescents reported spending no time (22.1% and 14.0%, respectively) or 5 hours or more (21.3% and 17.5%, respectively) in gaming and other nonacademic computer use (P < .001). The association between mental problems and video gaming or other nonacademic computer use differed by sex. Among female adolescents, prevalence of mental problems increased steadily in association with increased time spent, whereas the pattern for male adolescents followed a J-shaped curve, decreasing initially, increasing slowly, and then increasing rapidly beginning at 4 hours or more.

Conclusion

Female adolescents were more likely to have all 3 mental health problems than male adolescents were. Spending no time or 5 hours or more daily on video gaming or other nonacademic computer use was associated with increased mental problems among both sexes. As suggested by the J-shaped relationship, 1 hour or less spent on video gaming or other nonacademic computer use may reduce depressive symptoms, suicidal behavior, and being bullied compared with no use or excessive use.

The Relations between Television Exposure and Executive Function in Chinese Preschoolers: The Moderated Role of Parental Mediation Behaviors

The present study examined the relations between preschoolers’ television exposure and executive functions (EF). One hundred and nineteen 3- to 6-year-old children and their parents participated. Parents filled in a questionnaire regarding children’s television viewing time, television content and parental mediation behaviors about their child’s television viewing. The children were asked to finish six EF tasks, including the backward digit span task, the spatial span task, the boy–girl Stroop, the Simon task, the flanker task and the Tower of Hanoi task that assessed working memory, inhibition and planning, respectively. Children’s vocabulary was tested using Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and included as control variables in addition to socioeconomic status of the participated families. The results showed that television viewing time and child-directed educational programs were positively associated with EF. In addition, television content fully mediated the effect of television viewing time on EF and parental restrictive approach strategies moderated the effect of television viewing time on EF.

Comparison of psychological and social characteristics among traditional, cyber, combined bullies, and non-involved

This study analysed the psychological and social characteristics of bullies involved in traditional and cyberbullying. The responses of 11,117 Korean elementary, middle, and high school students were analysed. Results indicate that the rate of traditional bullying was higher than the rate of cyberbullying. The four groups (traditional bullies, cyberbullies, combined bullies, and non-involved) showed significant differences in the degree of aggression, self-control, violence exposure, and social support. Compared to the non-involved group, violence exposure significantly predicted traditional, cyber, and combined bullying. High aggression and low self-control significantly predicted both traditional and combined bullying, while low social support significantly predicted only cyberbullying.

Protecting the Innocence of Youth: Moral Sanctity Values Underlie Censorship From Young Children

Three studies examined the relationship between people’s moral values (drawing on moral foundations theory) and their willingness to censor immoral acts from children. Results revealed that diverse moral values did not predict censorship judgments. It was not the case that participants who valued loyalty and authority, respectively, sought to censor depictions of disloyal and disobedient acts. Rather, censorship intentions were predicted by a single moral value—sanctity. The more people valued sanctity, the more willing they were to censor from children, regardless of the types of violations depicted (impurity, disloyalty, disobedience, etc.). Furthermore, people who valued sanctity objected to indecent exposure only to apparently innocent and pure children—those who were relatively young and who had not been previously exposed to immoral acts. These data suggest that sanctity, purity, and the preservation of innocence underlie intentions to censor from young children.

The Association Between Electronic Media and Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Late Childhood

OBJECTIVE

There is growing concern that rising rates of electronic media use might be harmful. However, the extent to which different types of electronic media use might be associated with emotional and behavioral problems is unclear. In this study we examined associations between emotional and behavioral problems and electronic media use during late childhood, in a large community sample.

METHODS

Participants were 876 8- to 9-year-old children taking part in the Childhood to Adolescence Transition Study in Australia. Parents reported on their child's emotional and behavioral problems using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and on their child's duration of electronic media use (in hours: television, video games, general computer use).

RESULTS

Logistic regression analyses were conducted with adjustments for age, socioeconomic status, and body mass index z score, separately for male and female participants. Boys who played more video games had significantly greater odds of scoring borderline/abnormal on conduct (odds ratio [OR], 1.07; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02-1.12) and emotional problems (OR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.04-1.11) for each additional hour of weekly use. This equates to 2.58-fold greater odds for a boy who plays on average 2 hours per day per week. Television viewing was associated with greater odds of hyperactivity/inattention in boys (OR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.00-1.07). There were no significant relationships for girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Because of the increasing rates of electronic media use in children, these results might have important implications for child mental health. Future interventions might be more effective if they are targeted at specific types of electronic media use.