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Hansbro PM, Scott GV, Essilfie AT, Kim RY, Starkey MR, Nguyen DH, Allen PD, Kaiko GE, Yang M, Horvat JC, Foster PS. Th2 cytokine antagonists: potential treatments for severe asthma. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2012; 22:49-69. [PMID: 23126660 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2013.732997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Asthma is a major disease burden worldwide. Treatment with steroids and long acting β-agonists effectively manage symptoms in many patients but do not treat the underlying cause of disease and have serious side effects when used long term and in children. Therapies targeting the underlying causes of asthma are urgently needed. T helper type 2 (Th2) cells and the cytokines they release are clinically linked to the presentation of all forms of asthma. They are the primary drivers of mild to moderate and allergic asthma. They also play a pathogenetic role in exacerbations and more severe asthma though other factors are also involved. Much effort using animal models and human studies has been dedicated to the identification of the pathogenetic roles of these cells and cytokines and whether inhibition of their activity has therapeutic benefit in asthma. AREAS COVERED We discuss the current status of Th2 cytokine antagonists for the treatment of asthma. We also discuss the potential for targeting Th2-inducing cytokines, Th2 cell receptors and signaling as well as the use of Th2 cell antagonists, small interfering oligonucleotides, microRNAs, and combination therapies. EXPERT OPINION Th2 antagonists may be most effective in particular asthma subtypes/endotypes where specific cytokines are known to be active through the analysis of biomarkers. Targeting common receptors and pathways used by these cytokines may have additional benefit. Animal models have been valuable in identifying therapeutic targets in asthma, however the results from such studies need to be carefully interpreted and applied to appropriately stratified patient cohorts in well-designed clinical studies and trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Hansbro
- The University of Newcastle, Priority Research Centre for Asthma and Respiratory Disease and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Level 2, Kookaburra Circuit, New Lambton Heights, Newcastle, New South Wales, 2305, Australia.
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102
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Mjösberg J, Bernink J, Golebski K, Karrich JJ, Peters CP, Blom B, te Velde AA, Fokkens WJ, van Drunen CM, Spits H. The transcription factor GATA3 is essential for the function of human type 2 innate lymphoid cells. Immunity 2012; 37:649-59. [PMID: 23063330 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 508] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are part of a large family of ILCs that are important effectors in innate immunity, lymphoid organogenesis, and tissue remodeling. ILC2s mediate parasite expulsion but also contribute to airway inflammation, emphasizing the functional similarity between these cells and Th2 cells. Consistent with this, we report that the transcription factor GATA3 was highly expressed by human ILC2s. CRTH2(+) ILC2s were enriched in nasal polyps of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis, a typical type 2-mediated disease. Nasal polyp epithelial cells expressed TSLP, which enhanced STAT5 activation, GATA3 expression, and type 2 cytokine production in ILC2s. Ectopic expression of GATA3 in Lin(-)CD127(+)CRTH2(-) cells resulted in induction of CRTH2 and the capacity to produce high amounts of type 2 cytokines in response to TSLP plus IL-33. Hence, we identify GATA3, potently regulated by TSLP, as an essential transcription factor for the function of human ILC2s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Mjösberg
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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103
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Waserman S, Nair P, Snider D, Conway M, Jayaram L, McCleary LM, Dolovich J, Hargreave FE, Marshall JS. Local and systemic immunological parameters associated with remission of asthma symptoms in children. ALLERGY, ASTHMA, AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CANADIAN SOCIETY OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 8:16. [PMID: 23043798 PMCID: PMC3599667 DOI: 10.1186/1710-1492-8-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The immunological and clinical parameters that are associated with asthma remission are poorly understood. The cytokine and local mediator changes associated with the resolution of asthma symptoms were examined in three groups of subjects 12-18 years of age (n = 15 in each group): (a) continuing asthma group (CA) who had persistent symptoms since early childhood, (b) an age, sex and atopic status-matched group who had persistent symptoms in early childhood but in whom these had resolved (RA), and (c) a non-atopic, non-asthmatic control group. Clinical parameters, sputum cell counts, peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) cytokine production and activation marker expression were determined. All of the CA had methacholine airway hyperresponsiveness compared with only half of the RA subjects. The CA showed elevated numbers of eosinophils and increased ECP and IL-5 in sputum, which were not observed in the RA. PBMC cytokine studies revealed increased production of the type 1 cytokines IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF-α in the CA group compared with the RA group, under a range of activation conditions, however, the production of IL-4 and IL-5 were unchanged. These findings suggest that decreased type 1 cytokine expression as well as decreased eosinophilic inflammation is associated with the resolution of asthma symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Waserman
- Departments of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, McMaster University Medical Centre, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | | | - Denis Snider
- Departments of Pathology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Mary Conway
- Departments of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Lata Jayaram
- Departments of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Lynn M McCleary
- Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Jerry Dolovich
- Departments of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | | | - Jean S Marshall
- Departments of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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104
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Rujeni N, Taylor DW, Mutapi F. Human schistosome infection and allergic sensitisation. J Parasitol Res 2012; 2012:154743. [PMID: 22970345 PMCID: PMC3434398 DOI: 10.1155/2012/154743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Several field studies have reported an inverse relationship between the prevalence of helminth infections and that of allergic sensitisation/atopy. Recent studies show that immune responses induced by helminth parasites are, to an extent, comparable to allergic sensitisation. However, helminth products induce regulatory responses capable of inhibiting not only antiparasite immune responses, but also allergic sensitisation. The relative effects of this immunomodulation on the development of protective schistosome-specific responses in humans has yet to be demonstrated at population level, and the clinical significance of immunomodulation of allergic disease is still controversial. Nonetheless, similarities in immune responses against helminths and allergens pose interesting mechanistic and evolutionary questions. This paper examines the epidemiology, biology and immunology of allergic sensitisation/atopy, and schistosome infection in human populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Rujeni
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, Centre for Immunity, Infection, and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, King's Buildings, West Mains Rd, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
| | - David W. Taylor
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, Centre for Immunity, Infection, and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, King's Buildings, West Mains Rd, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Francisca Mutapi
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, Centre for Immunity, Infection, and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, King's Buildings, West Mains Rd, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
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105
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Ruiter B, Shreffler WG. Innate immunostimulatory properties of allergens and their relevance to food allergy. Semin Immunopathol 2012; 34:617-32. [PMID: 22886110 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-012-0334-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Food allergy is an increasingly prevalent disease of immune dysregulation directed to a small subset of proteins. Shared structural and functional features of allergens, such as glycosylation, lipid-binding and protease activity may provide insight into the mechanisms involved in the induction of primary Th2 immune responses. We review the literature of innate Th2-type immune activation as a context for better understanding the properties of allergens that contribute to the induction of Th2-biased immune responses in at least a subset of individuals. Th2-priming signals have been largely identified in the context of parasite immunity and wound healing. Some of the features of parasite antigens and the innate immune responses to them are now understood to play a role in allergic inflammation as well. These include both exogenous and endogenous activators of innate immunity and subsequent release of key cytokine mediators such as thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), interleukin (IL)-25 and IL-33. Moreover, numerous innate immune cells including epithelium, dendritic cells, basophils, innate lymphoid cells and others all interact to shape the adaptive Th2 immune response. Progress toward understanding Th2-inducing innate immune signals more completely may lead to novel strategies for primary prevention and therapy of respiratory and food allergies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bert Ruiter
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
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106
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Reduced levels of interleukin 33 and increased levels of soluble ST2 in subjects with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2012; 249:93-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2012] [Revised: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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107
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Eddens T, Kolls JK. Host defenses against bacterial lower respiratory tract infection. Curr Opin Immunol 2012; 24:424-30. [PMID: 22841348 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Revised: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial pneumonia continues to be a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Recent studies have shown that lung epithelia signal through pattern recognition receptors to initiate the innate immune response. Other mediators of innate immunity against bacterial pneumonia include transepithelial dendritic cells, alveolar macrophages, and innate produces of IL-17. CD4+ T cells and B cells play a key role in eliminating and preventing the development of bacterial pneumonias. B cell development and maturation can be modulated by the lung epithelia through BAFF and APRIL, furthering our current understanding of the role of epithelial cells in the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor Eddens
- Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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108
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Hams E, Fallon PG. Innate type 2 cells and asthma. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2012; 12:503-9. [PMID: 22749407 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2012.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Asthma and other allergic conditions are immunologically described as Th2 skewed, with associated increases in IgE, eosinophila and expression of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13. However, recent advances have implicated other type 2 cytokines such as IL-25, IL-33 and TSLP in the pathogenesis of allergic conditions. These cytokines are potent inducers of the panel of recently described innate immune cells, which also produce large amounts of the Th2 cytokines IL-5 and IL-13 independent of the adaptive immune response. We review herein, the role for these innate cell populations with a focus on the nuocyte, in allergic asthma and pulmonary inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hams
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
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109
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O'Shea JJ, Plenge R. JAK and STAT signaling molecules in immunoregulation and immune-mediated disease. Immunity 2012; 36:542-50. [PMID: 22520847 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 811] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of the Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcripton (STAT) signaling pathway, a landmark in cell biology, provided a simple mechanism for gene regulation that dramatically advanced our understanding of the action of hormones, interferons, colony-stimulating factors, and interleukins. As we learn more about the complexities of immune responses, new insights into the functions of this pathway continue to be revealed, aided by technology that permits genome-wide views. As we celebrate the 20(th) anniversary of the discovery of this paradigm in cell signaling, it is particularly edifying to see how this knowledge has rapidly been translated to human immune disease. Not only have genome-wide association studies demonstrated that this pathway is highly relevant to human autoimmunity, but targeting JAKs is now a reality in immune-mediated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J O'Shea
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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110
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Ballow M, Akdis CA, Casale TB, Wardlaw AJ, Wenzel SE, Ballas Z, Lötvall J. Immune response modifiers in the treatment of asthma: A PRACTALL document of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology and the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012; 130:311-24. [PMID: 22713596 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.04.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ballow
- Division of Allergy, Immunology & Pediatric Rheumatology, SUNY Buffalo School of Medicine, Buffalo, NY 14222, USA.
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111
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Abstract
The airways, similar to other mucosal surfaces, are continuously exposed to the outside environment and a barrage of antigens, allergens, and microorganisms. Of critical importance therefore is the ability to mount rapid and effective immune responses to control commensal and pathogenic microbes, while simultaneously limiting the extent of these responses to prevent immune pathology and chronic inflammation. The function of the adaptive immune response in controlling these processes at mucosal surfaces has been well documented but the important role of the innate immune system, particularly the recently identified family of innate lymphoid cells, has only lately become apparent. In this review, we give an overview of the innate lymphoid cells that exist in the airways and examine the evidence pertaining to their emerging roles in airways immunity, inflammation, and homeostasis.
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112
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Aalberse JA, Prakken BJ, Kapitein B. HSP: Bystander Antigen in Atopic Diseases? Front Immunol 2012; 3:139. [PMID: 22666223 PMCID: PMC3364480 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last years insight in the complex interactions between innate and adaptive immunity in the regulation of an inflammatory response has increased enormously. This has revived the interest in stress proteins; proteins that are expressed during cell stress. As these proteins can attract and trigger an immunological response they can act as important mediators in this interaction. In this respect, of special interest are proteins that may act as modulators of both innate and adaptive immunity. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are stress proteins that have these, and more, characteristics. More than two decades of studies on HSPs has revealed that they are part of intrinsic, “natural” mechanisms that steer inflammation. This has provoked comprehensive explorations of the role of HSPs in various human inflammatory diseases. Most studies have focused on classical autoimmune diseases. This has led to the development of clinical studies with HSPs that have shown promise in Phase II/III clinical trials. Remarkably, only very little is yet known of the role of HSPs in atopic diseases. In allergic disease a number of studies have investigated the possibility that allergen-specific regulatory T cell (Treg) function is defective in individuals with allergic diseases. This raises the question whether methods can be identified to improve the Treg repertoire. Studies from other inflammatory diseases have suggested HSPs may have such a beneficial effect on the T cell repertoire. Based on the immune mechanisms of atopic diseases, in this review we will argue that, as in other human inflammatory conditions, understanding immunity to HSPs is likely also relevant for atopic diseases. Specifically, we will discuss why certain HSPs such as HSP60 connect the immune response to environmental antigens with regulation of the inflammatory response. Thus they provide a molecular link that may eventually even help to better understand the immune pathological basis of the hygiene hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joost A Aalberse
- Department of Pediatric Immunology, Center for Molecular and Cellular Intervention, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Netherlands
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113
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Pearson C, Uhlig HH, Powrie F. Lymphoid microenvironments and innate lymphoid cells in the gut. Trends Immunol 2012; 33:289-96. [PMID: 22578693 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2012.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2012] [Revised: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) is a sensor region for luminal content and plays an important role in lymphoid maturation, activation and differentiation. It comprises isolated and aggregated lymphoid follicles, cryptopatches (CPs) and tertiary lymphoid tissue. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) play a central role within GALT. Prenatal GALT development is dependent on ILC lymphoid-inducer function. Postnatally, these cells rapidly respond to commensal and pathogenic intestinal bacteria, parasites and food components by polarized cytokine production [such as interleukin (IL)-22, IL-17 or IL-13] and further contribute to GALT formation and function. Here, we discuss how ILCs shape lymphoid intestinal microenvironments and act as amplifier cells for innate and adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Pearson
- Translational Gastroenterology Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
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114
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Abstract
Macrophages play pleiotropic, niche-specific roles in all tissues and organs. As immune sentinels, tissue macrophages regulate immune activation and inflammation; in turn, their function is modulated by inflammatory mediators deriving from such activation. Recent papers have established unanticipated roles for interleukin 4 and the alternative activation of tissue macrophages in the organismal response to diverse environmental stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L Karp
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.
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115
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Monticelli LA, Sonnenberg GF, Artis D. Innate lymphoid cells: critical regulators of allergic inflammation and tissue repair in the lung. Curr Opin Immunol 2012; 24:284-9. [PMID: 22521139 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2012] [Revised: 03/26/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Maintenance of epithelial barrier function in the skin, respiratory tract and intestine is critical to limit exposure to commensal and pathogenic microbes and to maintain tissue homeostasis. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a recently recognized innate immune cell population that plays critical roles in host defense, regulation of inflammation and promotion of wound healing and tissue repair at barrier surfaces. In this review we discuss recent advances in the understanding of how ILC populations in the respiratory tract impact allergic airway inflammation and lung epithelial repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel A Monticelli
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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116
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González-Reimers E, Santolaria-Fernández F, Medina-García JA, González-Pérez JM, de la Vega-Prieto MJ, Medina-Vega L, Martín-González C, Durán-Castellón MC. TH-1 and TH-2 cytokines in stable chronic alcoholics. Alcohol Alcohol 2012; 47:390-6. [PMID: 22510812 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/ags041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED In alcoholics, the activation of Kupffer cells by gram negative bacteriae leads to an inflammatory response and cytokine secretion, which in turn activate T-lymphocytes. Possibly, Th-1 lymphocytes are activated first, followed by a Th-2 response. Th-2 cytokines, especially interleukin (IL)-13 (scarcely studied in alcoholics), may be involved in the progression to chronic stages. AIMS The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship of Th-1 and Th-2 cytokines with liver function, alcohol consumption, nutritional status and survival. METHODS Serum Th-1 [interferon-γ (IFN-γ)] and Th-2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-13), IL-10, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), were determined for 18 controls and 47 stable alcoholics with variable liver function impairment, who were followed-up during a median time of 90 months, a period during which 14 patients died. RESULTS IL-4 was lower among patients; no differences were observed regarding IL-6, but the remaining ILs were higher among alcoholics. IL-10 and IL-13 were even higher in cirrhotics (Z = 2.88, P = 0.004, and Z = 2.09, P = 0.037, respectively). A significant, direct, correlation was observed between IL-13 and IL-10 (ρ = 0.49, P = 0.001), and non-significant, inverse ones were observed between IFN-γ and IL-13 (ρ = -0.23), IL-4 (ρ = -0.14) and IL-10 (ρ = -0.09). IL-13 and IL-10 were inversely related with liver function and, directly with immunoglobulin A levels, but not with survival. CONCLUSION Serum IFN-γ values were increased in alcoholics, who also showed raised IL-13 and IL-10, but lower IL-4 levels. Given the immunomodulatory roles of IL-10 and IL-13, this increase may be interpreted as a compensatory rise of anti-inflammatory cytokines. We failed to find any relation with mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- E González-Reimers
- Servicio de Medicina Interna, Hospital Universitario, Ofra s/n, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.
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117
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Weidenbusch M, Anders HJ. Tissue microenvironments define and get reinforced by macrophage phenotypes in homeostasis or during inflammation, repair and fibrosis. J Innate Immun 2012; 4:463-77. [PMID: 22507825 DOI: 10.1159/000336717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2011] [Accepted: 01/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current macrophage phenotype classifications are based on distinct in vitro culture conditions that do not adequately mirror complex tissue environments. In vivo monocyte progenitors populate all tissues for immune surveillance which supports the maintenance of homeostasis as well as regaining homeostasis after injury. Here we propose to classify macrophage phenotypes according to prototypical tissue environments, e.g. as they occur during homeostasis as well as during the different phases of (dermal) wound healing. In tissue necrosis and/or infection, damage- and/or pathogen-associated molecular patterns induce proinflammatory macrophages by Toll-like receptors or inflammasomes. Such classically activated macrophages contribute to further tissue inflammation and damage. Apoptotic cells and an-tiinflammatory cytokines dominate in postinflammatory tissues which induce macrophages to produce more anti-inflammatory mediators. Similarly, tumor-associated macrophages also confer immunosuppression in tumor stroma. Insufficient parenchymal healing despite abundant growth factors pushes macrophages to gain a profibrotic phenotype and promote fibrocyte recruitment which both enforce tissue scarring. Ischemic scars are largely devoid of cytokines and growth factors so that fibrolytic macrophages that predominantly secrete proteases digest the excess extracellular matrix. Together, macrophages stabilize their surrounding tissue microenvironments by adapting different phenotypes as feed-forward mechanisms to maintain tissue homeostasis or regain it following injury. Furthermore, macrophage heterogeneity in healthy or injured tissues mirrors spatial and temporal differences in microenvironments during the various stages of tissue injury and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Weidenbusch
- Medizinische Klinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München-LMU, München, Deutschland
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118
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Regulation of epithelial immunity by IL-17 family cytokines. Trends Immunol 2012; 33:343-9. [PMID: 22476048 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2012] [Revised: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cutaneous and mucosal epithelial cells function as both a physical barrier and as immune sentinels against environmental challenges, such as microbial pathogens, allergens and stress. The crosstalk between epithelial cells and leukocytes is essential for orchestrating proper immune responses during host defense. Interleukin (IL)-17 family cytokines are important players in regulating innate epithelial immune responses. Although IL-17A and IL-17F promote antibacterial and antifungal responses, IL-17E is essential for defense against parasitic infections. Emerging data indicate that another member of this family, IL-17C, specifically regulates epithelial immunity. IL-17C production serves as an immediate defense mechanism by epithelial cells, utilizing an autocrine mechanism to promote antibacterial responses at barrier surfaces.
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