101
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Chen KW, Brodsky IE. Yersinia interactions with regulated cell death pathways. Curr Opin Microbiol 2023; 71:102256. [PMID: 36584489 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2022.102256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cell death in response to infection is conserved across all kingdoms of life. In metazoans, cell death upon bacterial infection is primarily carried out by the cysteine and aspartate protease and receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase families. The Gram-negative bacterial genus Yersinia includes pathogens that cause disease in humans and other animals ranging from plague to gastrointestinal infections. Pathogenic Yersiniae express a type-III secretion system (T3SS), which translocates effectors that disrupt phagocytosis and innate immune signaling to evade immune defenses and replicate extracellularly in infected tissues. Blockade of innate immune signaling, disruption of the actin cytoskeleton, and the membrane-disrupting activity of the T3SS translocon pore, are all sensed by innate immune cells. Here, we discuss recent advances in understanding the pathways that regulate Yersinia-induced cell death, and how manipulation of these cell death pathways over the course of infection promotes bacterial dissemination or host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiwen W Chen
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Igor E Brodsky
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, United States; Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, United States.
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102
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Structural insights into the regulation of Cas7-11 by TPR-CHAT. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2023; 30:135-139. [PMID: 36471056 PMCID: PMC9935389 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-022-00894-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The CRISPR-guided caspase (Craspase) complex is an assembly of the target-specific RNA nuclease known as Cas7-11 bound to CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and an ancillary protein known as TPR-CHAT (tetratricopeptide repeats (TPR) fused with a CHAT domain). The Craspase complex holds promise as a tool for gene therapy and biomedical research, but its regulation is poorly understood. TPR-CHAT regulates Cas7-11 nuclease activity via an unknown mechanism. In the present study, we use cryoelectron microscopy to determine structures of the Desulfonema magnum (Dm) Craspase complex to gain mechanistic insights into its regulation. We show that DmTPR-CHAT stabilizes crRNA-bound DmCas7-11 in a closed conformation via a network of interactions mediated by the DmTPR-CHAT N-terminal domain, the DmCas7-11 insertion finger and Cas11-like domain, resulting in reduced target RNA accessibility and cleavage.
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103
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Li H, Wang X, Yu L, Wang J, Cao Y, Ma B, Zhang W. Duck gasdermin E is a substrate of caspase-3/-7 and an executioner of pyroptosis. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1078526. [PMID: 36703987 PMCID: PMC9871645 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1078526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Gasdermin (GSDM)-mediated cell death is an ancient immune defensive mechanism that plays an essential role in bacteria, fungi, coral, teleost, and mammals. After being cleaved by proteases of hosts or pathogens, amino-terminal (NT) fragment of GSDMs (GSDM-NTs) form pores in the membrane structure of cells, thereby leading to pyroptotic cell death. However, the expression profile, activation mechanism and function of avian GSDMs have not been studied in depth yet. In the current study, genes encoding duck gasdermin E (duGSDME), caspase-3 (ducaspase-3) and ducaspase-7 were cloned from mRNA of a virus-challenged duck embryo. The cleavage of duGSDME by ducaspase-3/-7 was verified in the cell-free system and/or in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293). Ducaspase-3/-7 could recognize and cleave duGSDME at 270DAVD273. Overexpression of duGSDME-NT (1-273aa) fragment led to pyroptosis-like morphological change, increased lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) release and propidium iodide uptake of HEK293 cells, which indicated that duGSDME-NTs could cause cell membrane damage. In addition, recombinantly expressed duGSDME-NT showed bactericidal activity to an enterotoxic Escherichia coli (F5+) strain. The expression level of duGSDME was low in duckling tissues. DHAV-3 challenge upregulated the expression of duGSDME and ducaspase-3 in different tissues and led to the activation of ducaspase-3 and cleavage of duGSDME. The results indicated that duGSDME is a substrate of ducapsase-3/-7, and duGSDME-NT can cause pyroptosis. In addition, duGSDME may play a role in the immune defense of ducks against infectious diseases after being cleaved by ducaspase-3. The current study provides essential information for further investigation of the mechanisms of avian innate immunity and avian diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanqing Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Xin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Lanjie Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Junwei Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yongsheng Cao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Bo Ma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,*Correspondence: Wenlong Zhang, ; Bo Ma,
| | - Wenlong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China,*Correspondence: Wenlong Zhang, ; Bo Ma,
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104
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Xue Y, Jiang X, Wang J, Zong Y, Yuan Z, Miao S, Mao X. Effect of regulatory cell death on the occurrence and development of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Biomark Res 2023; 11:2. [PMID: 36600313 PMCID: PMC9814270 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-022-00433-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Head and neck cancer is a malignant tumour with a high mortality rate characterized by late diagnosis, high recurrence and metastasis rates, and poor prognosis. Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the most common type of head and neck cancer. Various factors are involved in the occurrence and development of HNSCC, including external inflammatory stimuli and oncogenic viral infections. In recent years, studies on the regulation of cell death have provided new insights into the biology and therapeutic response of HNSCC, such as apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, and recently the newly discovered cuproptosis. We explored how various cell deaths act as a unique defence mechanism against cancer emergence and how they can be exploited to inhibit tumorigenesis and progression, thus introducing regulatory cell death (RCD) as a novel strategy for tumour therapy. In contrast to accidental cell death, RCD is controlled by specific signal transduction pathways, including TP53 signalling, KRAS signalling, NOTCH signalling, hypoxia signalling, and metabolic reprogramming. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanisms of nonapoptotic RCD and its relationship to HNSCC and discuss the crosstalk between relevant signalling pathways in HNSCC cells. We also highlight novel approaches to tumour elimination through RCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Xue
- grid.412651.50000 0004 1808 3502Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Xuejiao Jiang
- grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Lab of TCM Collateral Disease Theory Research, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Junrong Wang
- grid.412651.50000 0004 1808 3502Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Yuxuan Zong
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First of hospital of Qiqihar, Qiqihar, China
| | - Zhennan Yuan
- grid.412651.50000 0004 1808 3502Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Susheng Miao
- grid.412651.50000 0004 1808 3502Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Xionghui Mao
- grid.412651.50000 0004 1808 3502Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
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105
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Abstract
Pyroptosis is a form of regulated cell death that is mediated by the membrane-targeting, pore-forming gasdermin family of proteins. Pyroptosis was initially described as a caspase 1- and inflammasome-dependent cell death pathway typified by the loss of membrane integrity and the secretion of cytokines such as IL-1β. However, gasdermins are now recognized as the principal effectors of this form of regulated cell death; activated gasdermins insert into cell membranes, where they form pores that result in the secretion of cytokines, alarmins and damage-associated molecular patterns and cause cell membrane rupture. It is now evident that gasdermins can be activated by inflammasome- and caspase-independent mechanisms in multiple cell types and that crosstalk occurs between pyroptosis and other cell death pathways. Although they are important for host antimicrobial defence, a growing body of evidence supports the notion that pyroptosis and gasdermins have pathological roles in cancer and several non-microbial diseases involving the gut, liver and skin. The well-documented roles of inflammasome activity and apoptosis pathways in kidney diseases suggests that gasdermins and pyroptosis may also be involved to some extent. However, despite some evidence for involvement of pyroptosis in the context of acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease, our understanding of gasdermin biology and pyroptosis in the kidney remains limited.
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106
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Wojciechowski JW, Tekoglu E, Gąsior-Głogowska M, Coustou V, Szulc N, Szefczyk M, Kopaczyńska M, Saupe SJ, Dyrka W. Exploring a diverse world of effector domains and amyloid signaling motifs in fungal NLR proteins. PLoS Comput Biol 2022; 18:e1010787. [PMID: 36542665 PMCID: PMC9815663 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
NLR proteins are intracellular receptors constituting a conserved component of the innate immune system of cellular organisms. In fungi, NLRs are characterized by high diversity of architectures and presence of amyloid signaling. Here, we explore the diverse world of effector and signaling domains of fungal NLRs using state-of-the-art bioinformatic methods including MMseqs2 for fast clustering, probabilistic context-free grammars for sequence analysis, and AlphaFold2 deep neural networks for structure prediction. In addition to substantially improving the overall annotation, especially in basidiomycetes, the study identifies novel domains and reveals the structural similarity of MLKL-related HeLo- and Goodbye-like domains forming the most abundant superfamily of fungal NLR effectors. Moreover, compared to previous studies, we found several times more amyloid motif instances, including novel families, and validated aggregating and prion-forming properties of the most abundant of them in vitro and in vivo. Also, through an extensive in silico search, the NLR-associated amyloid signaling was identified in basidiomycetes. The emerging picture highlights similarities and differences in the NLR architectures and amyloid signaling in ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and other branches of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub W. Wojciechowski
- Katedra Inżynierii Biomedycznej, Wydział Podstawowych Problemów Techniki, Politechnika Wrocławska, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Emirhan Tekoglu
- Biyomühendislik Bölümü, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul, Turkey
- Wydział Chemiczny, Politechnika Wrocławska, Poland
| | - Marlena Gąsior-Głogowska
- Katedra Inżynierii Biomedycznej, Wydział Podstawowych Problemów Techniki, Politechnika Wrocławska, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Virginie Coustou
- Institut de Biochimie et de Génétique Cellulaire, UMR 5095 CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Natalia Szulc
- Katedra Inżynierii Biomedycznej, Wydział Podstawowych Problemów Techniki, Politechnika Wrocławska, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Monika Szefczyk
- Katedra Chemii Bioorganicznej, Wydział Chemiczny, Politechnika Wrocławska, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Marta Kopaczyńska
- Katedra Inżynierii Biomedycznej, Wydział Podstawowych Problemów Techniki, Politechnika Wrocławska, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Sven J. Saupe
- Institut de Biochimie et de Génétique Cellulaire, UMR 5095 CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- * E-mail: (SJS); (WD)
| | - Witold Dyrka
- Katedra Inżynierii Biomedycznej, Wydział Podstawowych Problemów Techniki, Politechnika Wrocławska, Wrocław, Poland
- * E-mail: (SJS); (WD)
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107
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Patel DJ, Yu Y, Jia N. Bacterial origins of cyclic nucleotide-activated antiviral immune signaling. Mol Cell 2022; 82:4591-4610. [PMID: 36460008 PMCID: PMC9772257 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2022.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Second-messenger-mediated signaling by cyclic oligonucleotides (cOs) composed of distinct base, ring size, and 3'-5'/2'-5' linkage combinations constitutes the initial trigger resulting in activation of signaling pathways that have an impact on immune-mediated antiviral defense against invading viruses and phages. Bacteria and archaea have evolved CRISPR, CBASS, Pycsar, and Thoeris surveillance complexes that involve cO-mediated activation of effectors resulting in antiviral defense through either targeted nuclease activity, effector oligomerization-mediated depletion of essential cellular metabolites or disruption of host cell membrane functions. Notably, antiviral defense capitalizes on an abortive infection mechanism, whereby infected cells die prior to completion of the phage replication cycle. In turn, phages have evolved small proteins that target and degrade/sequester cOs, thereby suppressing host immunity. This review presents a structure-based mechanistic perspective of recent advances in the field of cO-mediated antiviral defense, in particular highlighting the ancient evolutionary adaptation by metazoans of bacterial cell-autonomous innate immune mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinshaw J Patel
- Structural Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - You Yu
- Structural Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Ning Jia
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
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108
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Structural basis for the non-self RNA-activated protease activity of the type III-E CRISPR nuclease-protease Craspase. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7549. [PMID: 36477448 PMCID: PMC9729208 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35275-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The RNA-targeting type III-E CRISPR-gRAMP effector interacts with a caspase-like protease TPR-CHAT to form the CRISPR-guided caspase complex (Craspase), but their functional mechanism is unknown. Here, we report cryo-EM structures of the type III-E gRAMPcrRNA and gRAMPcrRNA-TPR-CHAT complexes, before and after either self or non-self RNA target binding, and elucidate the mechanisms underlying RNA-targeting and non-self RNA-induced protease activation. The associated TPR-CHAT adopted a distinct conformation upon self versus non-self RNA target binding, with nucleotides at positions -1 and -2 of the CRISPR-derived RNA (crRNA) serving as a sensor. Only binding of the non-self RNA target activated the TPR-CHAT protease, leading to cleavage of Csx30 protein. Furthermore, TPR-CHAT structurally resembled eukaryotic separase, but with a distinct mechanism for protease regulation. Our findings should facilitate the development of gRAMP-based RNA manipulation tools, and advance our understanding of the virus-host discrimination process governed by a nuclease-protease Craspase during type III-E CRISPR-Cas immunity.
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109
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Yu G, Wang X, Zhang Y, An Q, Wen Y, Li X, Yin H, Deng Z, Zhang H. Structure and function of a bacterial type III-E CRISPR-Cas7-11 complex. Nat Microbiol 2022; 7:2078-2088. [PMID: 36302881 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-022-01256-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The type III-E CRISPR-Cas system uses a single multidomain effector called Cas7-11 (also named gRAMP) to cleave RNA and associate with a caspase-like protease Csx29, showing promising potential for RNA-targeting applications. The structural and molecular mechanisms of the type III-E CRISPR-Cas system remain poorly understood. Here we report four cryo-electron microscopy structures of Cas7-11 at different functional states. Cas7-11 has four Cas7-like domains, which assemble into a helical filament to accommodate CRISPR RNA (crRNA), and a Cas11-like domain facilitating crRNA-target RNA duplex formation. The Cas7.1 domain is critical for crRNA maturation, whereas Cas7.2 and Cas7.3 are responsible for target RNA cleavage. Target RNA binding induces the structural arrangements of Csx29, potentially exposing the catalytic site of Csx29. These results delineate the molecular mechanisms underlying pre-crRNA processing, target RNA recognition and cleavage for Cas7-11, and provide a structural framework to understand the role of Csx29 in type III-E CRISPR system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guimei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, The Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Institute of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaoshen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, The Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Institute of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, The Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Institute of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Qiyin An
- Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanan Wen
- Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, The Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Institute of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xuzichao Li
- Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, The Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Institute of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Hang Yin
- Department of Pharmacology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zengqin Deng
- Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.
| | - Heng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, The Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Institute of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China.
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110
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Liu X, Zhang L, Wang H, Xiu Y, Huang L, Gao Z, Li N, Li F, Xiong W, Gao T, Zhang Y, Yang M, Feng Y. Target RNA activates the protease activity of Craspase to confer antiviral defense. Mol Cell 2022; 82:4503-4518.e8. [PMID: 36306795 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2022.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In the type III-E CRISPR-Cas system, a Cas effector (gRAMP) is associated with a TPR-CHAT to form Craspase (CRISPR-guided caspase). However, both the structural features of gRAMP and the immunity mechanism remain unknown for this system. Here, we report structures of gRAMP-crRNA and gRAMP:cRNA:target RNA as well as structures of Craspase and Craspase complexed with cognate target RNA (CTR) or non-cognate target RNA (NTR). Importantly, the 3' anti-tag region of NTR and CTR binds at two distinct channels in Craspase, and CTR with a non-complementary 3' anti-tag induces a marked conformational change of the TPR-CHAT, which allosterically activates its protease activity to cleave an ancillary protein Csx30. This cleavage then triggers an abortive infection as the antiviral strategy of the type III-E system. Together, our study provides crucial insights into both the catalytic mechanism of the gRAMP and the immunity mechanism of the type III-E system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Liu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Laixing Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Science, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Hao Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yu Xiu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Ling Huang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Zhengyu Gao
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Ningning Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Feixue Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Weijia Xiong
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Teng Gao
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Science, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Maojun Yang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Science, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Yue Feng
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China.
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111
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Kato K, Okazaki S, Schmitt-Ulms C, Jiang K, Zhou W, Ishikawa J, Isayama Y, Adachi S, Nishizawa T, Makarova KS, Koonin EV, Abudayyeh OO, Gootenberg JS, Nishimasu H. RNA-triggered protein cleavage and cell growth arrest by the type III-E CRISPR nuclease-protease. Science 2022; 378:882-889. [PMID: 36423304 PMCID: PMC11126364 DOI: 10.1126/science.add7347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The type III-E CRISPR-Cas7-11 effector binds a CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and the putative protease Csx29 and catalyzes crRNA-guided RNA cleavage. We report cryo-electron microscopy structures of the Cas7-11-crRNA-Csx29 complex with and without target RNA (tgRNA), and demonstrate that tgRNA binding induces conformational changes in Csx29. Biochemical experiments revealed tgRNA-dependent cleavage of the accessory protein Csx30 by Csx29. Reconstitution of the system in bacteria showed that Csx30 cleavage yields toxic protein fragments that cause growth arrest, which is regulated by Csx31. Csx30 binds Csx31 and the associated sigma factor RpoE (RNA polymerase, extracytoplasmic E), suggesting that Csx30-mediated RpoE inhibition modulates the cellular response to infection. We engineered the Cas7-11-Csx29-Csx30 system for programmable RNA sensing in mammalian cells. Overall, the Cas7-11-Csx29 effector is an RNA-dependent nuclease-protease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Kato
- Structural Biology Division, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
| | - Sae Okazaki
- Structural Biology Division, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
| | - Cian Schmitt-Ulms
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kaiyi Jiang
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Wenyuan Zhou
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Junichiro Ishikawa
- Structural Biology Division, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
| | - Yukari Isayama
- Structural Biology Division, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
| | - Shungo Adachi
- Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 2-4-7 Aomi, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Nishizawa
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, 22-2 Seto, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0027, Japan
| | - Kira S. Makarova
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Eugene V. Koonin
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Omar O. Abudayyeh
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jonathan S. Gootenberg
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Hiroshi Nishimasu
- Structural Biology Division, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Inamori Research Institute for Science, 620 Suiginya-cho, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto 600-8411, Japan
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112
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Millman A, Melamed S, Leavitt A, Doron S, Bernheim A, Hör J, Garb J, Bechon N, Brandis A, Lopatina A, Ofir G, Hochhauser D, Stokar-Avihail A, Tal N, Sharir S, Voichek M, Erez Z, Ferrer JLM, Dar D, Kacen A, Amitai G, Sorek R. An expanded arsenal of immune systems that protect bacteria from phages. Cell Host Microbe 2022; 30:1556-1569.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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113
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex G. Johnson
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Philip J. Kranzusch
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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114
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Hu C, van Beljouw SPB, Nam KH, Schuler G, Ding F, Cui Y, Rodríguez-Molina A, Haagsma AC, Valk M, Pabst M, Brouns SJ, Ke A. Craspase is a CRISPR RNA-guided, RNA-activated protease. Science 2022; 377:1278-1285. [PMID: 36007061 PMCID: PMC10041820 DOI: 10.1126/science.add5064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The CRISPR-Cas type III-E RNA-targeting effector complex gRAMP/Cas7-11 is associated with a caspase-like protein (TPR-CHAT/Csx29) to form Craspase (CRISPR-guided caspase). Here, we use cryo-electron microscopy snapshots of Craspase to explain its target RNA cleavage and protease activation mechanisms. Target-guide pairing extending into the 5' region of the guide RNA displaces a gating loop in gRAMP, which triggers an extensive conformational relay that allosterically aligns the protease catalytic dyad and opens an amino acid side-chain-binding pocket. We further define Csx30 as the endogenous protein substrate that is site-specifically proteolyzed by RNA-activated Craspase. This protease activity is switched off by target RNA cleavage by gRAMP and is not activated by RNA targets containing a matching protospacer flanking sequence. We thus conclude that Craspase is a target RNA-activated protease with self-regulatory capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyi Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, 253 Biotechnology Building, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Sam P. B. van Beljouw
- Department of Bionanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, Netherlands
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Ki Hyun Nam
- Department of Life Science, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Gabriel Schuler
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, 253 Biotechnology Building, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Fran Ding
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, 253 Biotechnology Building, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Yanru Cui
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, 253 Biotechnology Building, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Alicia Rodríguez-Molina
- Department of Bionanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, Netherlands
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Anna C Haagsma
- Department of Bionanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, Netherlands
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Menno Valk
- Department of Bionanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, Netherlands
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Martin Pabst
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, Netherlands
| | - Stan J.J. Brouns
- Department of Bionanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, Netherlands
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Ailong Ke
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, 253 Biotechnology Building, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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115
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Wei X, Xie F, Zhou X, Wu Y, Yan H, Liu T, Huang J, Wang F, Zhou F, Zhang L. Role of pyroptosis in inflammation and cancer. Cell Mol Immunol 2022; 19:971-992. [PMID: 35970871 PMCID: PMC9376585 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-022-00905-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 107.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyroptosis is a form of programmed cell death mediated by gasdermin and is a product of continuous cell expansion until the cytomembrane ruptures, resulting in the release of cellular contents that can activate strong inflammatory and immune responses. Pyroptosis, an innate immune response, can be triggered by the activation of inflammasomes by various influencing factors. Activation of these inflammasomes can induce the maturation of caspase-1 or caspase-4/5/11, both of which cleave gasdermin D to release its N-terminal domain, which can bind membrane lipids and perforate the cell membrane. Here, we review the latest advancements in research on the mechanisms of pyroptosis, newly discovered influencing factors, antitumoral properties, and applications in various diseases. Moreover, this review also provides updates on potential targeted therapies for inflammation and cancers, methods for clinical prevention, and finally challenges and future directions in the field.
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116
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Hasel de Carvalho E, Bartok E, Stölting H, Bajoghli B, Leptin M. Revisiting the origin of interleukin 1 in anamniotes and sub-functionalization of interleukin 1 in amniotes. Open Biol 2022; 12:220049. [PMID: 35975650 PMCID: PMC9382457 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.220049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytokine interleukin 1 (IL-1) is an evolutionary innovation of vertebrates. Fish and amphibian have one IL1 gene, while mammals have two copies of IL1, IL1A and IL1B, with distinct expression patterns and differences in their proteolytic activation. Our current understanding of the evolutionary history of IL-1 is mainly based on phylogenetic analysis, but this approach provides no information on potentially different functions of IL-1 homologues, and it remains unclear which biological activities identified for IL-1α and IL-1β in mammals are present in lower vertebrates. Here, we use in vitro and in vivo experimental models to examine the expression patterns and cleavage of IL-1 proteins from various species. We found that IL-1 in the teleost medaka shares the transcriptional patterns of mammalian IL-1α, and its processing also resembles that of mammalian IL-1α, which is sensitive to cysteine protease inhibitors specific for the calpain and cathepsin families. By contrast, IL-1 proteins in reptiles also include biological properties of IL-1β. Therefore, we propose that the duplication of the ancestral IL1 gene led to the segregation of expression patterns and protein processing that characterizes the two extant forms of IL-1 in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Hasel de Carvalho
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Directors' Research, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Eva Bartok
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Venusberg Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany.,Unit of Experimental Immunology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Helen Stölting
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Baubak Bajoghli
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Directors' Research, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Hematology, Oncology, Immunology, and Rheumatology, University Hospital of Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Strasse 10, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Maria Leptin
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Directors' Research, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
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117
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Yuan Z, Jiang S, Qin K, Sun L. New insights into the evolutionary dynamic and lineage divergence of gasdermin E in metazoa. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:952015. [PMID: 35938154 PMCID: PMC9355259 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.952015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gasdermin (GSDM) is a family of pore-forming proteins that induce pyroptosis. To date, the origin and evolution of GSDM in Metazoa remain elusive. Here, we found that GSDM emerged early in Placozoa but is absent in a large number of invertebrates. In the lower vertebrate, fish, three types of GSDME, i.e., GSDMEa, GSDMEb, and a previously unreported type (designated GSDMEc), were idenitied. Evolutionarily, the three GSDMEs are distinctly separated: GSDMEa is closely related to tetrapod GSDME; GSDMEb exists exclusively in fish; GSDMEc forms the lineage root of tetrapod GSDMA/B/C/D. GSDMEc shares conserved genomic features with and is probably the prototype of GSDMA, which we found existing in all tetrapod classes. GSDMEc displays fast evolutionary dynamics, likely as a result of genomic transposition. A cross-metazoan analysis of GSDME revealed that GSDMEa shares a conserved caspase recognition motif with the GSDME of tetrapods and cnidarians, whereas GSDMEb has a unique caspase recognition motif similar to that of mammalian GSDMD, and GSDMEc exhibits no apparent caspase recognition motif. Through functional test, four highly conserved residues in vertebrate GSDME proved to be essential to auto-inhibition. Together our results provide new insights into the origin, evolution, and function of metazoan GSDMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihao Yuan
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Shuai Jiang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Shuai Jiang, ; Li Sun,
| | - Kunpeng Qin
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Li Sun
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, CAS Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Shuai Jiang, ; Li Sun,
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118
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Bacteria deplete deoxynucleotides to defend against bacteriophage infection. Nat Microbiol 2022; 7:1200-1209. [PMID: 35817891 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-022-01158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
DNA viruses and retroviruses consume large quantities of deoxynucleotides (dNTPs) when replicating. The human antiviral factor SAMHD1 takes advantage of this vulnerability in the viral lifecycle, and inhibits viral replication by degrading dNTPs into their constituent deoxynucleosides and inorganic phosphate. Here, we report that bacteria use a similar strategy to defend against bacteriophage infection. We identify a family of defensive bacterial deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) deaminase proteins that convert dCTP into deoxyuracil nucleotides in response to phage infection. We also identify a family of phage resistance genes that encode deoxyguanosine triphosphatase (dGTPase) enzymes, which degrade dGTP into phosphate-free deoxyguanosine and are distant homologues of human SAMHD1. Our results suggest that bacterial defensive proteins deplete specific deoxynucleotides (either dCTP or dGTP) from the nucleotide pool during phage infection, thus starving the phage of an essential DNA building block and halting its replication. Our study shows that manipulation of the dNTP pool is a potent antiviral strategy shared by both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
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119
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Payne LJ, Meaden S, Mestre MR, Palmer C, Toro N, Fineran P, Jackson S. PADLOC: a web server for the identification of antiviral defence systems in microbial genomes. Nucleic Acids Res 2022; 50:W541-W550. [PMID: 35639517 PMCID: PMC9252829 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkac400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Most bacteria and archaea possess multiple antiviral defence systems that protect against infection by phages, archaeal viruses and mobile genetic elements. Our understanding of the diversity of defence systems has increased greatly in the last few years, and many more systems likely await discovery. To identify defence-related genes, we recently developed the Prokaryotic Antiviral Defence LOCator (PADLOC) bioinformatics tool. To increase the accessibility of PADLOC, we describe here the PADLOC web server (freely available at https://padloc.otago.ac.nz), allowing users to analyse whole genomes, metagenomic contigs, plasmids, phages and archaeal viruses. The web server includes a more than 5-fold increase in defence system types detected (since the first release) and expanded functionality enabling detection of CRISPR arrays and retron ncRNAs. Here, we provide user information such as input options, description of the multiple outputs, limitations and considerations for interpretation of the results, and guidance for subsequent analyses. The PADLOC web server also houses a precomputed database of the defence systems in > 230,000 RefSeq genomes. These data reveal two taxa, Campylobacterota and Spriochaetota, with unusual defence system diversity and abundance. Overall, the PADLOC web server provides a convenient and accessible resource for the detection of antiviral defence systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leighton J Payne
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Sean Meaden
- Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | | | - Chris Palmer
- Information Technology Services Research and Teaching Group, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Nicolás Toro
- Department of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Structure, Dynamics and Function of Rhizobacterial Genomes, Grupo de Ecología Genética de la Rizosfera, Granada, Spain
| | - Peter C Fineran
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Genetics Otago, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Simon A Jackson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Genetics Otago, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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120
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Abstract
Pyroptosis, a regulated form of pro-inflammatory cell death, is characterised by cell lysis and by the release of cytokines, damage- and pathogen-associated molecular patterns. It plays an important role during bacterial infection, where it can promote an inflammatory response and eliminate the replicative niche of intracellular pathogens. Recent work, using a variety of bacterial pathogens, has illuminated the versatility of pyroptosis, revealing unexpected and important concepts underlying host defence. In this Review, we overview the molecular mechanisms underlying pyroptosis and discuss their role in host defence, from the single cell to the whole organism. We focus on recent studies using three cellular microbiology paradigms - Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella Typhimurium and Shigella flexneri - that have transformed the field of pyroptosis. We compare insights discovered in tissue culture, zebrafish and mouse models, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of using these complementary infection models to investigate pyroptosis and for modelling human infection. Moving forward, we propose that in-depth knowledge of pyroptosis obtained from complementary infection models can better inform future studies using higher vertebrates, including humans, and help develop innovative host-directed therapies to combat bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Brokatzky
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Serge Mostowy
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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121
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McKenzie B, Khazen R, Valitutti S. Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: How Tumor Cells Defend Against the Siege Weapons of Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes. Front Immunol 2022; 13:894306. [PMID: 35592329 PMCID: PMC9110820 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.894306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are the main cellular effectors of the adaptive immune response against cancer cells, which in turn have evolved sophisticated cellular defense mechanisms to withstand CTL attack. Herein we provide a critical review of the pertinent literature on early and late attack/defense events taking place at the CTL/target cell lytic synapse. We examine the earliest steps of CTL-mediated cytotoxicity (“the poison arrows”) elicited within seconds of CTL/target cell encounter, which face commensurately rapid synaptic repair mechanisms on the tumor cell side, providing the first formidable barrier to CTL attack. We examine how breach of this first defensive barrier unleashes the inextinguishable “Greek fire” in the form of granzymes whose broad cytotoxic potential is linked to activation of cell death executioners, injury of vital organelles, and destruction of intracellular homeostasis. Herein tumor cells deploy slower but no less sophisticated defensive mechanisms in the form of enhanced autophagy, increased reparative capacity, and dysregulation of cell death pathways. We discuss how the newly discovered supra-molecular attack particles (SMAPs, the “scorpion bombs”), seek to overcome the robust defensive mechanisms that confer tumor cell resistance. Finally, we discuss the implications of the aforementioned attack/defense mechanisms on the induction of regulated cell death (RCD), and how different contemporary RCD modalities (including apoptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis) may have profound implications for immunotherapy. Thus, we propose that understanding and targeting multiple steps of the attack/defense process will be instrumental to enhance the efficacy of CTL anti-tumor activity and meet the outstanding challenges in clinical immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brienne McKenzie
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1037, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Toulouse (CRCT), Université de Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Roxana Khazen
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1037, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Toulouse (CRCT), Université de Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Salvatore Valitutti
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1037, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Toulouse (CRCT), Université de Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.,Department of Pathology, Institut Universitaire du Cancer-Oncopole de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
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122
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Aravind L, Iyer LM, Burroughs AM. Discovering Biological Conflict Systems Through Genome Analysis: Evolutionary Principles and Biochemical Novelty. Annu Rev Biomed Data Sci 2022; 5:367-391. [PMID: 35609893 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biodatasci-122220-101119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Biological replicators, from genes within a genome to whole organisms, are locked in conflicts. Comparative genomics has revealed a staggering diversity of molecular armaments and mechanisms regulating their deployment, collectively termed biological conflict systems. These encompass toxins used in inter- and intraspecific interactions, self/nonself discrimination, antiviral immune mechanisms, and counter-host effectors deployed by viruses and intragenomic selfish elements. These systems possess shared syntactical features in their organizational logic and a set of effectors targeting genetic information flow through the Central Dogma, certain membranes, and key molecules like NAD+. These principles can be exploited to discover new conflict systems through sensitive computational analyses. This has led to significant advances in our understanding of the biology of these systems and furnished new biotechnological reagents for genome editing, sequencing, and beyond. We discuss these advances using specific examples of toxins, restriction-modification, apoptosis, CRISPR/second messenger-regulated systems, and other enigmatic nucleic acid-targeting systems. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biomedical Data Science, Volume 5 is August 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Aravind
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Lakshminarayan M Iyer
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - A Maxwell Burroughs
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
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123
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Zeng Z, Chen Y, Pinilla-Redondo R, Shah SA, Zhao F, Wang C, Hu Z, Wu C, Zhang C, Whitaker RJ, She Q, Han W. A short prokaryotic Argonaute activates membrane effector to confer antiviral defense. Cell Host Microbe 2022; 30:930-943.e6. [PMID: 35594868 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Argonaute (Ago) proteins are widespread nucleic-acid-guided enzymes that recognize targets through complementary base pairing. Although, in eukaryotes, Agos are involved in RNA silencing, the functions of prokaryotic Agos (pAgos) remain largely unknown. In particular, a clade of truncated and catalytically inactive pAgos (short pAgos) lacks characterization. Here, we reveal that a short pAgo protein in the archaeon Sulfolobus islandicus, together with its two genetically associated proteins, Aga1 and Aga2, provide robust antiviral protection via abortive infection. Aga2 is a toxic transmembrane effector that binds anionic phospholipids via a basic pocket, resulting in membrane depolarization and cell killing. Ago and Aga1 form a stable complex that exhibits nucleic-acid-directed nucleic-acid-recognition ability and directly interacts with Aga2, pointing to an immune sensing mechanism. Together, our results highlight the cooperation between pAgos and their widespread associated proteins, suggesting an uncharted diversity of pAgo-derived immune systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhifeng Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology and College of Life Sciences and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China; Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, 430070 Wuhan, China
| | - Yu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology and College of Life Sciences and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China; Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, 430070 Wuhan, China
| | - Rafael Pinilla-Redondo
- Section of Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Shiraz A Shah
- Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood (COPSAC), Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Ledreborg Alle 34, 2820 Gentofte, Denmark
| | - Fen Zhao
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, 430070 Wuhan, China; National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China
| | - Chen Wang
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, 430070 Wuhan, China; National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China
| | - Zeyu Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology and College of Life Sciences and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China; Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, 430070 Wuhan, China
| | - Chang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology and College of Life Sciences and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China; Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, 430070 Wuhan, China
| | - Changyi Zhang
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Rachel J Whitaker
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Qunxin She
- CRISPR and Archaea Biology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Binhai Road 72, Jimo, 266237 Qingdao, China
| | - Wenyuan Han
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology and College of Life Sciences and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China; Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, 430070 Wuhan, China.
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124
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Liu Y, Zhang C, Wu M. Prokaryotic gasdermins: ancestors of eukaryotic counterparts direct the pyroptosis and cell fates. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:152. [PMID: 35525842 PMCID: PMC9079055 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01005-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Liu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, USA
| | - Chen Zhang
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands. .,Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China.
| | - Min Wu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, USA.
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Yeast cell death pathway requiring AP-3 vesicle trafficking leads to vacuole/lysosome membrane permeabilization. Cell Rep 2022; 39:110647. [PMID: 35417721 PMCID: PMC9074372 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Unicellular eukaryotes have been suggested as undergoing self-inflicted destruction. However, molecular details are sparse compared with the mechanisms of programmed/regulated cell death known for human cells and animal models. Here, we report a molecular cell death pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae leading to vacuole/lysosome membrane permeabilization. Following a transient cell death stimulus, yeast cells die slowly over several hours, consistent with an ongoing molecular dying process. A genome-wide screen for death-promoting factors identified all subunits of the AP-3 complex, a vesicle trafficking adapter known to transport and install newly synthesized proteins on the vacuole/lysosome membrane. To promote cell death, AP-3 requires its Arf1-GTPase-dependent vesicle trafficking function and the kinase Yck3, which is selectively transported to the vacuole membrane by AP-3. Video microscopy revealed a sequence of events where vacuole permeability precedes the loss of plasma membrane integrity. AP-3-dependent death appears to be conserved in the human pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. Details about how mammalian cells die have yielded effective cancer therapies. Similarly, details about fungal cell death may explain failed responses to anti-fungal agents and inform next-generation anti-fungal strategies. Stolp et al. describe a potential mechanism of yeast cell death subversion, by inhibiting AP-3 vesicle trafficking to block vacuole/lysosome permeability.
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Demarco B, Danielli S, Fischer FA, Bezbradica JS. How Pyroptosis Contributes to Inflammation and Fibroblast-Macrophage Cross-Talk in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Cells 2022; 11:1307. [PMID: 35455985 PMCID: PMC9028325 DOI: 10.3390/cells11081307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
About thirty years ago, a new form of pro-inflammatory lytic cell death was observed and termed pyroptosis. Only in 2015, gasdermins were defined as molecules that create pores at the plasma membrane and drive pyroptosis. Today, we know that gasdermin-mediated death is an important antimicrobial defence mechanism in bacteria, yeast and mammals as it destroys the intracellular niche for pathogen replication. However, excessive and uncontrolled cell death also contributes to immunopathology in several chronic inflammatory diseases, including arthritis. In this review, we discuss recent findings where pyroptosis contributes to tissue damage and inflammation with a main focus on injury-induced and autoimmune arthritis. We also review novel functions and regulatory mechanisms of the pyroptotic executors gasdermins. Finally, we discuss possible models of how pyroptosis may contribute to the cross-talk between fibroblast and macrophages, and also how this cross-talk may regulate inflammation by modulating inflammasome activation and pyroptosis induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Demarco
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK; (S.D.); (F.A.F.)
| | | | | | - Jelena S. Bezbradica
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK; (S.D.); (F.A.F.)
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127
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Bacterial origins of human cell-autonomous innate immune mechanisms. Nat Rev Immunol 2022; 22:629-638. [PMID: 35396464 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-022-00705-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cell-autonomous innate immune system enables animal cells to resist viral infection. This system comprises an array of sensors that, after detecting viral molecules, activate the expression of antiviral proteins and the interferon response. The repertoire of immune sensors and antiviral proteins has long been considered to be derived from extensive evolutionary innovation in vertebrates, but new data challenge this dogma. Recent studies show that central components of the cell-autonomous innate immune system have ancient evolutionary roots in prokaryotic genes that protect bacteria from phages. These include the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway, Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing pathogen receptors, the viperin family of antiviral proteins, SAMHD1-like nucleotide-depletion enzymes, gasdermin proteins and key components of the RNA interference pathway. This Perspective details current knowledge of the elements of antiviral immunity that are conserved from bacteria to humans, and presents possible evolutionary scenarios to explain the observed conservation.
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128
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Abstract
Healthy development and function of essentially all physiological systems and organs, including the brain, require exposure to the microbiota of our mothers and of the natural environment, especially in early life. We also know that some infections, if we survive them, modulate the immune system in relevant ways. If we study the evolution of the immune and metabolic systems, we can understand how these requirements developed and the nature of the organisms that we need to encounter. We can then begin to identify the mechanisms of the beneficial effects of these exposures. Against this evolutionary background, we can analyze the ways in which the modern urban lifestyle, particularly for individuals experiencing low socioeconomic status (SES), results in deficient or distorted microbial exposures and microbiomes. Thus, an evolutionary approach facilitates the identification of practical solutions to the growing scandal of health disparities linked to inequality.
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129
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Homing in on gasdermins: How fungi regulate cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2201192119. [PMID: 35235459 PMCID: PMC8915998 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2201192119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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130
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Fungal gasdermin-like proteins are controlled by proteolytic cleavage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:2109418119. [PMID: 35135876 PMCID: PMC8851545 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2109418119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Gasdermins are a family of pore-forming proteins controlling an inflammatory cell death reaction in the mammalian immune system. The pore-forming ability of the gasdermin proteins is released by proteolytic cleavage with the removal of their inhibitory C-terminal domain. Recently, gasdermin-like proteins have been discovered in fungi and characterized as cell death-inducing toxins in the context of conspecific non-self-discrimination (allorecognition). Although functional analogies have been established between mammalian and fungal gasdermins, the molecular pathways regulating gasdermin activity in fungi remain largely unknown. Here, we characterize a gasdermin-based cell death reaction controlled by the het-Q allorecognition genes in the filamentous fungus Podospora anserina We show that the cytotoxic activity of the HET-Q1 gasdermin is controlled by proteolysis. HET-Q1 loses a ∼5-kDa C-terminal fragment during the cell death reaction in the presence of a subtilisin-like serine protease termed HET-Q2. Mutational analyses and successful reconstitution of the cell death reaction in heterologous hosts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and human 293T cells) suggest that HET-Q2 directly cleaves HET-Q1 to induce cell death. By analyzing the genomic landscape of het-Q1 homologs in fungi, we uncovered that the vast majority of the gasdermin genes are clustered with protease-encoding genes. These HET-Q2-like proteins carry either subtilisin-like or caspase-related proteases, which, in some cases, correspond to the N-terminal effector domain of nucleotide-binding and oligomerization-like receptor proteins. This study thus reveals the proteolytic regulation of gasdermins in fungi and establishes evolutionary parallels between fungal and mammalian gasdermin-dependent cell death pathways.
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131
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Zhuang J, Xie L, Zheng L. A Glimpse of Programmed Cell Death Among Bacteria, Animals, and Plants. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 9:790117. [PMID: 35223864 PMCID: PMC8866957 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.790117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death (PCD) in animals mainly refers to lytic and non-lytic forms. Disruption and integrity of the plasma membrane are considered as hallmarks of lytic and apoptotic cell death, respectively. These lytic cell death programs can prevent the hosts from microbial pathogens. The key to our understanding of these cases is pattern recognition receptors, such as TLRs in animals and LRR-RLKs in plants, and nod-like receptors (NLRs). Herein, we emphatically discuss the biochemical and structural studies that have clarified the anti-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic functions of Bcl-2 family proteins during intrinsic apoptosis and how caspase-8 among apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis sets the switchable threshold and integrates innate immune signaling, and that have compared the similarity and distinctness of the apoptosome, necroptosome, and inflammasome. We recapitulate that the necroptotic MLKL pore, pyroptotic gasdermin pore, HR-inducing resistosome, and mitochondrial Bcl-2 family all can form ion channels, which all directly boost membrane disruption. Comparing the conservation and unique aspects of PCD including ferrroptosis among bacteria, animals, and plants, the commonly shared immune domains including TIR-like, gasdermin-like, caspase-like, and MLKL/CC-like domains act as arsenal modules to restructure the diverse architecture to commit PCD suicide upon stresses/stimuli for host community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Plant Virology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Jun Zhuang,
| | - Li Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Plant Virology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Luping Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Plant Virology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
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Humans and bacteria rely on the same aeons-old immune defence. Nature 2022. [DOI: 10.1038/d41586-022-00005-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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