Cholangiocyte primary cilia are chemosensory organelles that detect biliary nucleotides via P2Y12 purinergic receptors

Immortalized liver endothelial cells: a cell culture model for studies of motility and angiogenesis

Hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells (HSECs) are a unique subpopulation of fenestrated endothelial cells lining the hepatic sinusoids and comprising the majority of endothelial cells within the liver. HSECs not only have important roles in blood clearance, vascular tone, and immunity, but also undergo pathological changes, contributing to fibrosis, angiogenesis, and portal hypertension. There are few cell culture models for in vitro studies of motility and angiogenesis as primary cells are time-consuming to isolate, are limited in number, and often lack features of pathological vasculature. The aim of this study was to generate an immortalized cell line derived from HSECs that mimic pathological vasculature and allows detailed molecular interventions to be pursued. HSECs were isolated from mouse liver using CD31-based immunomagnetic separation, immortalized with SV40 large T-antigen, and subcloned on the basis of their ability to endocytose the acetylated low-density lipoprotein (AcLDL). The resulting cell line, transformed sinusoidal endothelial cells (TSECs), maintains an endothelial phenotype as well as some HSEC-specific features. This is evidenced by typical microscopic features of endothelia, including formation of lamellipodia and filopodia, and a cobblestone morphology of cell monolayers. Electron microscopy showed maintenance of a limited number of fenestrae organized in sieve plates. TSECs express numerous endothelia-specific markers, including CD31 and von Willebrand's factor (vWF), as detected by PCR array, immunoblotting, and immunofluorescence (IF). Functionally, TSECs maintain a number of key endothelial features, including migration in response to angiogenic factors, formation of vascular tubes, endocytosis of AcLDL, and remodeling of extracellular matrix. Their phenotype most closely resembles the pathological neovasculature associated with chronic liver disease, in which cells become proliferative, defenestrated, and angiogenic. Importantly, the cells can be transduced efficiently with viral vectors. TSECs should provide a reproducible cell culture model for high-throughput in vitro studies pertaining to a broad range of liver endothelial cell functions, but likely broader endothelial cell biology as well.

Pathogenesis of cholestatic liver disease and therapeutic approaches

Cholestatic liver disorders are caused by genetic defects, mechanical aberrations, toxins, or dysregulations in the immune system that damage the bile ducts and cause accumulation of bile and liver tissue damage. They have common clinical manifestations and pathogenic features that include the responses of cholangiocytes and hepatocytes to injury. We review the features of bile acid transport, tissue repair and regulation, apoptosis, vascular supply, immune regulation, and cholangiocytes that are associated with cholestatic liver disorders. We now have a greater understanding of the physiology of cholangiocytes at the cellular and molecular levels, as well as genetic factors, repair pathways, and autoimmunity mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of disease. These discoveries will hopefully lead to new therapeutic approaches for patients with cholestatic liver disease.

Biliary exosomes influence cholangiocyte regulatory mechanisms and proliferation through interaction with primary cilia

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles that are thought to participate in intercellular communication. Recent work from our laboratory suggests that, in normal and cystic liver, exosome-like vesicles accumulate in the lumen of intrahepatic bile ducts, presumably interacting with cholangiocyte cilia. However, direct evidence for exosome-ciliary interaction is limited and the physiological relevance of such interaction remains unknown. Thus, in this study, we tested the hypothesis that biliary exosomes are involved in intercellular communication by interacting with cholangiocyte cilia and inducing intracellular signaling and functional responses. Exosomes were isolated from rat bile by differential ultracentrifugation and characterized by scanning, transmission, and immunoelectron microscopy. The exosome-ciliary interaction and its effects on ERK1/2 signaling, expression of the microRNA, miR-15A, and cholangiocyte proliferation were studied on ciliated and deciliated cultured normal rat cholangiocytes. Our results show that bile contains vesicles identified as exosomes by their size, characteristic "saucer-shaped" morphology, and specific markers, CD63 and Tsg101. When NRCs were exposed to isolated biliary exosomes, the exosomes attached to cilia, inducing a decrease of the phosphorylated-to-total ERK1/2 ratio, an increase of miR-15A expression, and a decrease of cholangiocyte proliferation. All these effects of biliary exosomes were abolished by the pharmacological removal of cholangiocyte cilia. Our findings suggest that bile contains exosomes functioning as signaling nanovesicles and influencing intracellular regulatory mechanisms and cholangiocyte proliferation through interaction with primary cilia.

The biliary HCO(3)(-) umbrella: a unifying hypothesis on pathogenetic and therapeutic aspects of fibrosing cholangiopathies

This review focuses on the hypothesis that biliary HCO(3)(-) secretion in humans serves to maintain an alkaline pH near the apical surface of hepatocytes and cholangiocytes to prevent the uncontrolled membrane permeation of protonated glycine-conjugated bile acids. Functional impairment of this biliary HCO(3)(-) umbrella or its regulation may lead to enhanced vulnerability of cholangiocytes and periportal hepatocytes toward the attack of apolar hydrophobic bile acids. An intact interplay of hepatocellular and cholangiocellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) secretion, ATP/P2Y- and bile salt/TGR5-mediated Cl(-)/ HCO(3)(-) exchange and HCO(3)(-) secretion, and alkaline phosphatase-mediated ATP breakdown may guarantee a stable biliary HCO(3)(-) umbrella under physiological conditions. Genetic and acquired functional defects leading to destabilization of the biliary HCO(3)(-) umbrella may contribute to development and progression of various forms of fibrosing/sclerosing cholangitis.

Primary cilium-dependent mechanosensing is mediated by adenylyl cyclase 6 and cyclic AMP in bone cells

Primary cilia are chemosensing and mechanosensing organelles that regulate remarkably diverse processes in a variety of cells. We previously showed that primary cilia play a role in mediating mechanosensing in bone cells through an unknown mechanism that does not involve extracellular Ca(2+)-dependent intracellular Ca(2+) release, which has been implicated in all other cells that transduce mechanical signals via the cilium. Here, we identify a molecular mechanism linking primary cilia and bone cell mechanotransduction that involves adenylyl cyclase 6 (AC6) and cAMP. Intracellular cAMP was quantified in MLO-Y4 cells exposed to dynamic flow, and AC6 and primary cilia were inhibited using RNA interference. When exposed to flow, cells rapidly (<2 min) and transiently decreased cAMP production in a primary cilium-dependent manner. RT-PCR revealed differential expression of the membrane-bound isoforms of adenylyl cyclase, while immunostaining revealed one, AC6, preferentially localized to the cilium. Further studies showed that decreases in cAMP in response to flow were dependent on AC6 and Gd(3+)-sensitive channels but not intracellular Ca(2+) release and that this response mediated flow-induced COX-2 gene expression. The signaling events identified provide important details of a novel early mechanosensing mechanism in bone and advances our understanding of how signal transduction occurs at the primary cilium.

Activation of Trpv4 reduces the hyperproliferative phenotype of cystic cholangiocytes from an animal model of ARPKD

BACKGROUND & AIMS

In polycystic liver diseases, cyst formation involves cholangiocyte hyperproliferation. In polycystic kidney (PCK) rats, an animal model of autosomal-recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD), decreased intracellular calcium [Ca(2+)](i) in cholangiocytes is associated with hyperproliferation. We recently showed transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (Trpv4), a calcium-entry channel, is expressed in normal cholangiocytes and its activation leads to [Ca(2+)](i) increase. Thus, we hypothesized that pharmacologic activation of Trpv4 might reverse the hyperproliferative phenotype of PCK cholangiocytes.

METHODS

Trpv4 expression was examined in liver of normal and PCK rats, normal human beings, and patients with autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease or ARPKD. Trpv4 activation effect on cell proliferation and cyst formation was assessed in cholangiocytes derived from normal and PCK rats. The in vivo effects of Trpv4 activation on kidney and liver cysts was analyzed in PCK rats.

RESULTS

Trpv4 was overexpressed both at messenger RNA (8-fold) and protein (3-fold) levels in PCK cholangiocytes. Confocal and immunogold electron microscopy supported Trpv4 overexpression in the livers of PCK rats and ARPKD or autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease patients. Trpv4 activation in PCK cholangiocytes increased [Ca(2+)](i) by 30%, inhibiting cell proliferation by approximately 25%-50% and cyst growth in 3-dimensional culture (3-fold). Trpv4-small interfering RNA silencing blocked effects of Trpv4 activators by 70%. Trpv4 activation was associated with Akt phosphorylation and beta-Raf and Erk1/2 inhibition. In vivo, Trpv4 activation induced a significant decrease in renal cystic area and a nonsignificant decrease in liver cysts.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our in vitro and in vivo data suggest that increasing intracellular calcium by Trpv4 activation may represent a potential therapeutic approach in PKD.

Aquaporin-1 facilitates angiogenic invasion in the pathological neovasculature that accompanies cirrhosis

Increasing evidence suggests that hepatic fibrosis and pathological angiogenesis are interdependent processes that occur in parallel. Endothelial cell invasion is requisite for angiogenesis, and thus studies of the mechanisms governing liver endothelial cell (LEC) invasion during cirrhosis are of great importance. Emerging research implicates amoeboid-type motility and membrane blebbing as features that may facilitate invasion through matrix-rich microenvironments. Aquaporins (AQPs) are integral membrane water channels, recognized for their importance in epithelial secretion and absorption. However, recent studies also suggest links between water transport and cell motility or invasion. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that AQP-1 is involved in amoeboid motility and angiogenic invasion during cirrhosis. AQP-1 expression and localization was examined in normal and cirrhotic liver tissues derived from human and mouse. AQP-1 levels were modulated in LEC using retroviral overexpression or small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown and functional effects on invasion, membrane blebbing dynamics, and osmotic water permeability were assayed. Results demonstrate that AQP-1 is up-regulated in the small, angiogenic, neovasculature within the fibrotic septa of cirrhotic liver. AQP-1 overexpression promotes fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-induced dynamic membrane blebbing in LEC, which is sufficient to augment invasion through extracellular matrix. Additionally, AQP-1 localizes to plasma membrane blebs, where it increases osmotic water permeability and locally facilitates the rapid, trans-membrane flux of water.

CONCLUSION

AQP-1 enhances osmotic water permeability and FGF-induced dynamic membrane blebbing in LEC and thereby drives invasion and pathological angiogenesis during cirrhosis.

Polycystic kidney disease: inheritance, pathophysiology, prognosis, and treatment

Both autosomal dominant and recessive polycystic kidney disease are conditions with severe associated morbidity and mortality. Recent advances in the understanding of the genetic and molecular pathogenesis of both ADPKD and ARPKD have resulted in new, targeted therapies designed to disrupt cell signaling pathways responsible for the abnormal cell proliferation, dedifferentiation, apoptosis, and fluid secretion characteristic of the disease. Herein we review the current understanding of the pathophysiology of these conditions, as well as the current treatments derived from our understanding of the mechanisms of these diseases.

Primary cilia are decreased in breast cancer: analysis of a collection of human breast cancer cell lines and tissues

Primary cilia (PC) are solitary, sensory organelles that are critical for several signaling pathways. PC were detected by immunofluorescence of cultured cells and breast tissues. After growth for 7 days in vitro, PC were detected in ∼70% of breast fibroblasts and in 7-19% of epithelial cells derived from benign breast (184A1 and MCF10A). In 11 breast cancer cell lines, PC were present at a low frequency in four (from 0.3% to 4% of cells), but were absent in the remainder. The cancer cell lines with PC were all of the basal B subtype, which is analogous to the clinical triple-negative breast cancer subtype. Furthermore, the frequency of PC decreased with increasing degree of transformation/progression in the MCF10 and MDA-MB-435/LCC6 isogenic models of cancer progression. In histologically normal breast tissues, PC were frequent in fibroblasts and myoepithelial cells and less common in luminal epithelial cells. Of 26 breast cancers examined, rare PC were identified in cancer epithelial cells of only one cancer, which was of the triple-negative subtype. These data indicate a decrease or loss of PC in breast cancer and an association of PC with the basal B subtype. This manuscript contains online supplemental material at http://www.jhc.org. Please visit this article online to view these materials.

Impaired water reabsorption in mice deficient in the type VI adenylyl cyclase (AC6)

Adenylyl cyclase (AC) type VI (AC6) is a calcium-inhibitable enzyme which produces cAMP upon stimulation. Herein, we characterized the specific role of AC6 in the kidneys using two AC6-knockout mouse lines. Immunohistochemical staining revealed that AC6 exists in the tubular parts of the nephron and collecting duct. Activities of AC evoked by forskolin or a selective agonist of the V2 vasopressin receptor were lower in the kidneys of AC6-null mice compared to those of wildtype mice. Results of a metabolic cage assay and dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) showed for the first time that AC6 plays a critical role in regulating water homeostasis.

Kinetics of hedgehog-dependent full-length Gli3 accumulation in primary cilia and subsequent degradation

Hedgehog (Hh) signaling in vertebrates depends on intraflagellar transport (IFT) within primary cilia. The Hh receptor Patched is found in cilia in the absence of Hh and is replaced by the signal transducer Smoothened within an hour of Hh stimulation. By generating antibodies capable of detecting endogenous pathway transcription factors Gli2 and Gli3, we monitored their kinetics of accumulation in cilia upon Hh stimulation. Localization occurs within minutes of Hh addition, making it the fastest reported readout of pathway activity, which permits more precise temporal and spatial localization of Hh signaling events. We show that the species of Gli3 that accumulates at cilium tips is full-length and likely not protein kinase A phosphorylated. We also confirmed that phosphorylation and betaTrCP/Cul1 are required for endogenous Gli3 processing and that this is inhibited by Hh. Surprisingly, however, Hh-dependent inhibition of processing does not lead to accumulation of full-length Gli3, but instead renders it labile, leading to its proteasomal degradation via the SPOP/Cul3 complex. In fact, full-length Gli3 disappears with faster kinetics than the Gli3 repressor, the latter not requiring SPOP/Cul3 or betaTrCP/Cul1. This may contribute to the increased Gli3 activator/repressor ratios found in IFT mutants.

Advances in the pathogenesis and treatment of polycystic kidney disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is the most common genetic cause of chronic renal failure. Mouse models of PKD, especially those with mutations in genes that are orthologous to human disease genes, have provided insights into the pathogenesis of cyst formation and advanced the preclinical testing of new drugs.

RECENT FINDINGS

PKD is a ciliopathy that arises from abnormalities in the primary cilium, a sensory organelle present on the surface of most cells. The primary cilium is required for the maintenance of planar cell polarity, which regulates tubular diameter. Acute kidney injury stimulates cell proliferation and promotes cyst formation in a mouse model of PKD. Studies of signaling pathways that are perturbed in PKD have identified new potential therapeutic targets. Drugs that have shown beneficial effects in orthologous animal models of PKD include tolvaptan, octreotide, src inhibitors, CFTR inhibitors, pioglitazone, etanercept, and triptolide.

SUMMARY

Abnormalities in the primary cilium perturb signaling pathways that regulate renal epithelial cell growth and differentiation and lead to the formation of kidney cysts. Acute kidney injury promotes cyst formation and may underlie the variability in disease progression that is observed in affected individuals. Several promising new therapeutic agents that have been validated in orthologous animal models have entered clinical trials in humans.

Differentially expressed adenylyl cyclase isoforms mediate secretory functions in cholangiocyte subpopulation

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is generated by adenylyl cyclases (ACs), a group of enzymes with different tissue specificity and regulation. We hypothesized that AC isoforms are heterogeneously expressed along the biliary tree, are associated with specific secretory stimuli, and are differentially modulated in cholestasis. Small duct and large duct cholangiocytes were isolated from controls and from lipopolysaccharide-treated or alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate-treated rats. AC isoform expression was assessed via real-time polymerase chain reaction. Secretion and cAMP levels were measured in intrahepatic bile duct units after stimulation with secretin, forskolin, HCO(3)(-)/CO(2), cholinergic agonists, and beta-adrenergic agonists, with or without selected inhibitors or after silencing of AC8 or soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) with small interfering RNA. Gene expression of the Ca(2+)-insensitive isoforms (AC4, AC7) was higher in small duct cholangiocytes, whereas that of the Ca(2+)-inhibitable (AC5, AC6, AC9), the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-stimulated AC8, and the soluble sAC was higher in large duct cholangiocytes. Ca(2+)/calmodulin inhibitors and AC8 gene silencing inhibited choleresis and cAMP production stimulated by secretin and acetylcholine, but not by forskolin. Secretion stimulated by isoproterenol and calcineurin inibitors was cAMP-dependent and gamma-aminobutyric acid-inhibitable, consistent with activation of AC9. Cholangiocyte secretion stimulated by isohydric changes in [HCO(3)(-)](i) was cAMP-dependent and inhibited by sAC inhibitor and sAC gene silencing. Treatment with lipopolysaccharide or alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate increased expression of AC7 and sAC but decreased expression of the other ACs.

CONCLUSION

These studies demonstrate a previously unrecognized role of ACs in biliary pathophysiology. In fact: (1) AC isoforms are differentially expressed in cholangiocyte subpopulations; (2) AC8, AC9, and sAC mediate cholangiocyte secretion in response to secretin, beta-adrenergic agonists, or changes in [HCO(3)(-)](i), respectively; and (3) AC gene expression is modulated in experimental cholestasis.

Mechanisms of liver development: concepts for understanding liver disorders and design of novel therapies

The study of liver development has significantly contributed to developmental concepts about morphogenesis and differentiation of other organs. Knowledge of the mechanisms that regulate hepatic epithelial cell differentiation has been essential in creating efficient cell culture protocols for programmed differentiation of stem cells to hepatocytes as well as developing cell transplantation therapies. Such knowledge also provides a basis for the understanding of human congenital diseases. Importantly, much of our understanding of organ development has arisen from analyses of patients with liver deficiencies. We review how the liver develops in the embryo and discuss the concepts that operate during this process. We focus on the mechanisms that control the differentiation and organization of the hepatocytes and cholangiocytes and refer to other reviews for the development of nonepithelial tissue in the liver. Much progress in the characterization of liver development has been the result of genetic studies of human diseases; gaining a better understanding of these mechanisms could lead to new therapeutic approaches for patients with liver disorders.

Cholangiociliopathies: genetics, molecular mechanisms and potential therapies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The present review summarizes recent knowledge on polycystic liver diseases (PCLDs), mechanisms of hepatic cystogenesis and potential therapies for these conditions.

RECENT FINDINGS

PCLD may be classified as cholangiociliopathies. In PCLD associated with polycystic kidney disease, cell proliferation is one of the major mechanisms of cystogenesis, whereas in isolated PCLD (autosomal dominant polycystic liver disease), disrupted cell adhesion may be more important in cyst progression. In cystic cholangiocytes, overexpression of ion transporters and water channels facilitates fluid secretion into the cystic lumen, and growth factors, estrogens and cytokines promote cholangiocyte proliferation. With age, cholangiocytes lining liver cysts acquire features of mesenchymal cells contributing to hepatic fibrocystogenesis. A novel mechanism of liver cyst expansion in PCLD involves microRNA regulatory pathways. Hyperproliferation of cystic cholangiocytes is linked to abnormalities in cell cycle progression and microRNA expression. Decreased levels of miR-15a are coupled to upregulation of its target--the cell cycle regulator, Cdc25A. Cholangiocyte cilia in liver cysts are structurally abnormal. Somatostatin analogues and sirolimus reduce liver cyst volume in PCLD patients.

SUMMARY

Clarification of molecular mechanisms of hepatic cystogenesis provides an opportunity for the development of targeted therapeutic options in PCLD.

Evolutionary origins of the purinergic signalling system

Purines appear to be the most primitive and widespread chemical messengers in the animal and plant kingdoms. The evidence for purinergic signalling in plants, invertebrates and lower vertebrates is reviewed. Much is based on pharmacological studies, but important recent studies have utilized the techniques of molecular biology and receptors have been cloned and characterized in primitive invertebrates, including the social amoeba Dictyostelium and the platyhelminth Schistosoma, as well as the green algae Ostreococcus, which resemble P2X receptors identified in mammals. This suggests that contrary to earlier speculations, P2X ion channel receptors appeared early in evolution, while G protein-coupled P1 and P2Y receptors were introduced either at the same time or perhaps even later. The absence of gene coding for P2X receptors in some animal groups [e.g. in some insects, roundworms (Caenorhabditis elegans) and the plant Arabidopsis] in contrast to the potent pharmacological actions of nucleotides in the same species, suggests that novel receptors are still to be discovered.

Cholangiocyte proliferation and liver fibrosis

Cholangiocyte proliferation is triggered during extrahepatic bile duct obstruction induced by bile duct ligation, which is a common in vivo model used for the study of cholangiocyte proliferation and liver fibrosis. The proliferative response of cholangiocytes during cholestasis is regulated by the complex interaction of several factors, including gastrointestinal hormones, neuroendocrine hormones and autocrine or paracrine signalling mechanisms. Activation of biliary proliferation (ductular reaction) is thought to have a key role in the initiation and progression of liver fibrosis. The first part of this review provides an overview of the primary functions of cholangiocytes in terms of secretin-stimulated bicarbonate secretion--a functional index of cholangiocyte growth. In the second section, we explore the important regulators, both inhibitory and stimulatory, that regulate the cholangiocyte proliferative response during cholestasis. We discuss the role of proliferating cholangiocytes in the induction of fibrosis either directly via epithelial mesenchymal transition or indirectly via the activation of other liver cell types. The possibility of targeting cholangiocyte proliferation as potential therapy for reducing and/or preventing liver fibrosis, and future avenues for research into how cholangiocytes participate in the process of liver fibrogenesis are described.

The cAMP effectors Epac and protein kinase a (PKA) are involved in the hepatic cystogenesis of an animal model of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)

PCK rats, an animal model of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD), develop cholangiocyte-derived liver cysts associated with increased intracellular adenosine 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), the inhibition of which suppresses cyst growth. We hypothesized that elevated cAMP stimulates cholangiocyte proliferation via two downstream effectors, exchange proteins activated by cAMP (Epac1 and Epac2 isoforms) and protein kinase A (PKA), and that intracellular calcium is also involved in this process. Assessment of Epac isoforms and PKA regulatory subunits at the messenger RNA and protein level showed that cultured normal rat cholangiocytes express Epac1, Epac2, and all regulatory PKA subunits. Epac isoforms and the PKA RIbeta subunit were overexpressed in cultured PCK cholangiocytes. Proliferation analysis in response to Epac and PKA activation indicated that both normal and PCK cholangiocytes increase their growth upon Epac-specific stimulation, while PKA-specific stimulation results in differential effects, suppressing proliferation in normal cholangiocytes but accelerating this process in PCK cholangiocytes. On the other hand, both PKA and Epac activation of cystic structures generated by normal and PCK cholangiocytes when cultured under three-dimensional conditions resulted in increased cyst growth, particularly in PCK-cholangiocyte derived cysts. Pharmacological inhibitors and small interfering RNA-mediated gene silencing demonstrated the specificity of each effector activation, as well as the involvement of MEK-ERK1/2 signaling in all the observed effector-associated proliferation changes. Hyperproliferation of PCK cholangiocytes in response to PKA stimulation, but not to Epac stimulation, was found to be associated with decreased intracellular calcium, and restoration of calcium levels blocked the PKA-dependent proliferation via the PI3K/AKT pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our data provide strong evidence that both cAMP effectors, Epac and PKA, and the levels of intracellular calcium are involved in the hepatic cystogenesis of ARPKD.

Hepatic cystogenesis is associated with abnormal expression and location of ion transporters and water channels in an animal model of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease

Polycystic kidney (PCK) rats are a spontaneous model of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease that exhibit cholangiocyte-derived liver cysts. We have previously reported that in normal cholangiocytes a subset of vesicles contain three proteins (ie, the water channel AQP1, the chloride channel CFTR, and the anion exchanger AE2) that account for ion-driven water transport. Thus, we hypothesized that altered expression and location of these functionally related proteins contribute to hepatic cystogenesis. We show here that under basal conditions and in response to secretin and hypotonicity, cysts from PCK rats expanded to a greater degree than cysts formed by normal bile ducts. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblot analysis, and confocal and immunoelectron microscopy all indicated increased expression of these three proteins in PCK cholangiocytes versus normal cholangiocytes. AQP1, CFTR, and AE2 were localized preferentially to the apical membrane in normal rats while overexpressed at the basolateral membrane in PCK rats. Exposure of the cholangiocyte basolateral membrane to CFTR inhibitors [5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoic acid and CFTRinh172], or Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange inhibitors (4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid disodium salt hydrate and 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanato-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid disodium salt hydrate) blocked secretin-stimulated fluid accumulation in PCK but not in normal cysts. Our data suggest that hepatic cystogenesis in autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease may involve increased fluid accumulation because of overexpression and abnormal location of AQP1, CFTR, and AE2 in cystic cholangiocytes. Therapeutic interventions that block the activation of these proteins might inhibit cyst expansion in polycystic liver disease.