Erythropoietin increases neurogenesis and oligodendrogliosis of subventricular zone precursor cells after neonatal stroke

Enhancement of ventricular-subventricular zone-derived neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis by erythropoietin and its derivatives

In the postnatal mammalian brain, stem cells in the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ) continuously generate neuronal and glial cells throughout life. Genetic labeling of cells of specific lineages have demonstrated that the V-SVZ is an important source of the neuroblasts and/or oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) that migrate toward injured brain areas in response to several types of insult, including ischemia and demyelinating diseases. However, this spontaneous regeneration is insufficient for complete structural and functional restoration of the injured brain, so interventions to enhance these processes are sought for clinical applications. Erythropoietin (EPO), a clinically applied erythropoietic factor, is reported to have cytoprotective effects in various kinds of insult in the central nervous system. Moreover, recent studies suggest that EPO promotes the V-SVZ-derived neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis. EPO increases the proliferation of progenitors in the V-SVZ and/or the migration and differentiation of their progenies in and around injured areas, depending on the dosage, timing, and duration of treatment, as well as the type of animal model used. On the other hand, EPO has undesirable side effects, including thrombotic complications. We recently demonstrated that a 2-week treatment with the EPO derivative asialo-EPO promotes the differentiation of V-SVZ-derived OPCs into myelin-forming mature oligodendrocytes in the injured white matter of neonatal mice without causing erythropoiesis. Here we present an overview of the multifaceted effects of EPO and its derivatives in the V-SVZ and discuss the possible applications of these molecules in regenerative medicine.

G-protein-coupled receptor 91 and succinate are key contributors in neonatal postcerebral hypoxia-ischemia recovery

OBJECTIVE

Prompt post-hypoxia-ischemia (HI) revascularization has been suggested to improve outcome in adults and newborn subjects. Other than hypoxia-inducible factor, sensors of metabolic demand remain largely unknown. During HI, anaerobic respiration is arrested resulting in accumulation of carbohydrate metabolic intermediates. As such succinate readily increases, exerting its biological effects via a specific receptor, G-protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 91. We postulate that succinate/GPR91 enhances post-HI vascularization and reduces infarct size in a model of newborn HI brain injury.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

The Rice-Vannucci model of neonatal HI was used. Succinate was measured by mass spectrometry, and microvascular density was evaluated by quantification of lectin-stained cryosection. Gene expression was evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Succinate levels rapidly increased in the penumbral region of brain infarcts. GPR91 was foremost localized not only in neurons but also in astrocytes. Microvascular density increased at 96 hours after injury in wild-type animals; it was diminished in GPR91-null mice leading to an increased infarct size. Stimulation with succinate led to an increase in growth factors implicated in angiogenesis only in wild-type mice. To explain the mode of action of succinate/GPR91, we investigated the role of prostaglandin E2-prostaglandin E receptor 4, previously proposed in neural angiogenesis. Succinate-induced vascular endothelial growth factor expression was abrogated by a cyclooxygenase inhibitor and a selective prostaglandin E receptor 4 antagonist. This antagonist also abolished succinate-induced neovascularization.

CONCLUSIONS

We uncover a dominant metabolic sensor responsible for post-HI neurovascular adaptation, notably succinate/GPR91, acting via prostaglandin E2-prostaglandin E receptor 4 to govern expression of major angiogenic factors. We propose that pharmacological intervention targeting GPR91 could improve post-HI brain recovery.

Effects of erythropoietin in murine-induced pluripotent cell-derived panneural progenitor cells

Induced cell fate changes by reprogramming of somatic cells offers an efficient strategy to generate autologous pluripotent stem (iPS) cells from any adult cell type. The potential of iPS cells to differentiate into various cell types is well established, however the efficiency to produce functional neurons from iPS cells remains modest. Here, we generated panneural progenitor cells (pNPCs) from mouse iPS cells and investigated the effect of the neurotrophic growth factor erythropoietin (EPO) on their survival, proliferation and neurodifferentiation. Under neural differentiation conditions, iPS-derived pNPCs gave rise to microtubule-associated protein-2 positive neuronlike cells (34% to 43%) and platelet-derived growth factor receptor positive oligodendrocytelike cells (21% to 25%) while less than 1% of the cells expressed the astrocytic marker glial fibrillary acidic protein. Neuronlike cells generated action potentials and developed active presynaptic terminals. The pNPCs expressed EPO receptor (EPOR) mRNA and displayed functional EPOR signaling. In proliferating cultures, EPO (0.1-3 U/mL) slightly improved pNPC survival but reduced cell proliferation and neurosphere formation in a concentration-dependent manner. In differentiating cultures EPO facilitated neurodifferentiation as assessed by the increased number of β-III-tubulin positive neurons. Our results show that EPO inhibits iPS pNPC self-renewal and promotes neurogenesis.