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Parthenakis F, Marketou M, Kontaraki J, Patrianakos A, Nakou H, Touloupaki M, Vernardos M, Kochiadakis G, Chlouverakis G, Vardas P. Low Levels of MicroRNA-21 Are a Marker of Reduced Arterial Stiffness in Well-Controlled Hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2016; 19:235-240. [PMID: 27550546 DOI: 10.1111/jch.12900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a crucial role in myocardial and vascular remodeling and have emerged as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers or as therapeutic targets. The authors aimed to investigate the expression profile of selected miRNAs in the peripheral blood of patients with well-controlled essential hypertension in relation to arterial stiffness. Expression levels of miRNAs miRNA-1, miRNA-133a, miRNA-26b, miRNA-208b, miRNA-499, and miRNA-21 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were quantified by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV) and carotid radial pulse wave velocity (crPWV) were evaluated at baseline and after 1 year of effective antihypertensive therapy. A total of 95 patients (50 men, mean age 62±9 years) with well-controlled essential hypertension were included in the analysis. Only miRNA-21 was independently correlated with changes in both cfPWV and crPWV, independently of blood pressure levels (r=-0.56 and r=-0.46, respectively; P<.001 for both). Low levels of miRNA-21 are strongly associated with an improvement in arterial stiffness in patients with well-controlled essential hypertension, independently of their blood pressure levels. These data highlight the significance of miRNA-21 in vascular remodeling and its role as a potential prognostic marker and future therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Marketou
- Cardiology Department, Heraklion University Hospital, Crete, Greece
| | - Joanna Kontaraki
- Molecular Cardiology Laboratory, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | | | - Helen Nakou
- Cardiology Department, Heraklion University Hospital, Crete, Greece
| | - Maria Touloupaki
- Cardiology Department, Heraklion University Hospital, Crete, Greece
| | | | | | - Gregory Chlouverakis
- Division of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Panos Vardas
- Cardiology Department, Heraklion University Hospital, Crete, Greece
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102
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Torres-Castro I, Arroyo-Camarena ÚD, Martínez-Reyes CP, Gómez-Arauz AY, Dueñas-Andrade Y, Hernández-Ruiz J, Béjar YL, Zaga-Clavellina V, Morales-Montor J, Terrazas LI, Kzhyshkowska J, Escobedo G. Human monocytes and macrophages undergo M1-type inflammatory polarization in response to high levels of glucose. Immunol Lett 2016; 176:81-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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103
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Wu XQ, Dai Y, Yang Y, Huang C, Meng XM, Wu BM, Li J. Emerging role of microRNAs in regulating macrophage activation and polarization in immune response and inflammation. Immunology 2016; 148:237-48. [PMID: 27005899 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Diversity and plasticity are hallmarks of macrophages. Classically activated macrophages are considered to promote T helper type 1 responses and have strong microbicidal, pro-inflammatory activity, whereas alternatively activated macrophages are supposed to be associated with promotion of tissue remodelling and responses to anti-inflammatory reactions. Transformation of different macrophage phenotypes is reflected in their different, sometimes even opposite, roles in various diseases or inflammatory conditions. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as critical regulators of macrophage polarization (MP). Several miRNAs are induced by Toll-like receptors signalling in macrophages and target the 3'-untranslated regions of mRNAs encoding key molecules involved in MP. Therefore, identification of miRNAs related to the dynamic changes of MP and understanding their functions in regulating this process are important for discussing the molecular basis of disease progression and developing novel miRNA-targeted therapeutic strategies. Here, we review the current knowledge of the role of miRNAs in MP with relevance to immune response and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qin Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Liver Diseases of Anhui Medical University, ILD-AMU, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Yao Dai
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Liver Diseases of Anhui Medical University, ILD-AMU, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Medicine, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System and the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Liver Diseases of Anhui Medical University, ILD-AMU, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Cheng Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Liver Diseases of Anhui Medical University, ILD-AMU, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Meng
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Liver Diseases of Anhui Medical University, ILD-AMU, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Bao-Ming Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Liver Diseases of Anhui Medical University, ILD-AMU, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jun Li
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Liver Diseases of Anhui Medical University, ILD-AMU, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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104
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Chitu V, Gokhan Ş, Nandi S, Mehler MF, Stanley ER. Emerging Roles for CSF-1 Receptor and its Ligands in the Nervous System. Trends Neurosci 2016; 39:378-393. [PMID: 27083478 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) kinase regulates tissue macrophage homeostasis, osteoclastogenesis, and Paneth cell development. However, recent studies in mice have revealed that CSF-1R signaling directly controls the development and maintenance of microglia, and cell autonomously regulates neuronal differentiation and survival. While the CSF-1R-cognate ligands, CSF-1 and interleukin-34 (IL-34) compete for binding to the CSF-1R, they are expressed in a largely non-overlapping manner by mature neurons. The recent identification of a dominantly inherited, adult-onset, progressive dementia associated with inactivating mutations in the CSF-1R highlights the importance of CSF-1R signaling in the brain. We review the roles of the CSF-1R and its ligands in microglial and neural development and function, and their relevance to our understanding of neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violeta Chitu
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Şölen Gokhan
- Institute for Brain Disorders and Neural Regeneration, Departments of Neurology, Neuroscience, and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Sayan Nandi
- Departments of Neuroscience and Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Mark F Mehler
- Institute for Brain Disorders and Neural Regeneration, Departments of Neurology, Neuroscience, and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - E Richard Stanley
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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105
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Holmgaard RB, Zamarin D, Lesokhin A, Merghoub T, Wolchok JD. Targeting myeloid-derived suppressor cells with colony stimulating factor-1 receptor blockade can reverse immune resistance to immunotherapy in indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-expressing tumors. EBioMedicine 2016; 6:50-58. [PMID: 27211548 PMCID: PMC4856741 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Revised: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) promotes immunosuppression by direct action on effector T cells and Tregs and through recruitment, expansion and activation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Targeting of MDSCs is clinically being explored as a therapeutic strategy, though optimal targeting strategies and biomarkers predictive of response are presently unknown. Maturation and tumor recruitment of MDSCs are dependent on signaling through the receptor tyrosine kinase CSF-1R on myeloid cells. Here, we show that MDSCs are the critical cell population in IDO-expressing B16 tumors in mediating accelerated tumor outgrowth and resistance to immunotherapy. Using a clinically relevant drug, we show that inhibition of CSF-1R signaling can functionally block tumor-infiltrating MDSCs and enhance anti-tumor T cell responses. Furthermore, inhibition of CSF-1R sensitizes IDO-expressing tumors to immunotherapy with T cell checkpoint blockade, and combination of CSF-1R blockade with IDO inhibitors potently elicits tumor regression. These findings provide evidence for a critical and functional role for MDSCs on the in vivo outcome of IDO-expressing tumors. Tumor-infiltrating MDSCs promote accelerated outgrowth of IDO-expressing tumors. MDSCs infiltrating IDO-expressing tumors mediate resistance to immunotherapy. Combination of CSF-1R blockade with IDO inhibitors potently elicits tumor regression. CSF-1R blockade sensitizes tumors to the effects of immune checkpoint blockade.
Our data demonstrate that therapy with CSF-1R-blocking agents offers therapeutic benefit as a single agent and potentiates the effect of immunotherapeutic agents in IDO-expressing tumors infiltrated with CSF-1R-expressing MDSCs. These findings provide important insights into basic mechanisms underlying IDO mediated immune suppression and resistance to immunotherapies. In addition, it provides a strong rationale for therapeutic combinations with CSF-1R inhibitors in tumors expressing elevated IDO and highly infiltrated with MDSCs as predictive biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rikke B Holmgaard
- Swim Across America/Ludwig Collaborative Laboratory, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Dmitriy Zamarin
- Swim Across America/Ludwig Collaborative Laboratory, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, United States; Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Alexander Lesokhin
- Swim Across America/Ludwig Collaborative Laboratory, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, United States; Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Taha Merghoub
- Swim Across America/Ludwig Collaborative Laboratory, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Jedd D Wolchok
- Swim Across America/Ludwig Collaborative Laboratory, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, United States; Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, United States.
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106
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Papavasiliou FN, Chung YC, Gagnidze K, Hajdarovic KH, Cole DC, Bulloch K. Epigenetic Modulators of Monocytic Function: Implication for Steady State and Disease in the CNS. Front Immunol 2016; 6:661. [PMID: 26834738 PMCID: PMC4713841 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Epigenetic alterations are necessary for the establishment of functional and phenotypic diversity in the populations of immune cells of the monocytic lineage. The epigenetic status of individual genes at different time points defines their transcriptional responses throughout development and in response to environmental stimuli. Epigenetic states are defined at the level of DNA modifications, chromatin modifications, as well as at the level of RNA base changes through RNA editing. Drawing from lessons regarding the epigenome and epitranscriptome of cells of the monocytic lineage in the periphery, and from recently published RNAseq data deriving from brain-resident monocytes, we discuss the impact of modulation of these epigenetic states and how they affect processes important for the development of a healthy brain, as well as mechanisms of neurodegenerative disease and aging. An understanding of the varied brain responses and pathologies in light of these novel gene regulatory systems in monocytes will lead to important new insights in the understanding of the aging process and the treatment and diagnosis of neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Nina Papavasiliou
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Biology, The Rockefeller University , New York, NY , USA
| | - Young Cheul Chung
- Neuroimmunology and Inflammation Program, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Khatuna Gagnidze
- Neuroimmunology and Inflammation Program, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kaitlyn H Hajdarovic
- Neuroimmunology and Inflammation Program, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dan C Cole
- Neuroimmunology and Inflammation Program, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Karen Bulloch
- Neuroimmunology and Inflammation Program, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
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107
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Donzelli S, Cioce M, Muti P, Strano S, Yarden Y, Blandino G. MicroRNAs: Non-coding fine tuners of receptor tyrosine kinase signalling in cancer. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 50:133-42. [PMID: 26773212 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence point to a crucial role for non-coding RNAs in modulating homeostatic signaling under physiological and pathological conditions. MicroRNAs, the best-characterized non-coding RNAs to date, can exquisitely integrate spatial and temporal signals in complex networks, thereby confer specificity and sensitivity to tissue response to changes in the microenvironment. MicroRNAs appear as preferential partners for Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) in mediating signaling under stress conditions. Stress signaling can be especially relevant to disease. Here we focus on the ability of microRNAs to mediate RTK signaling in cancer, by acting as both tumor suppressors and oncogenes. We will provide a few general examples of microRNAs modulating specific tumorigenic functions downstream of RTK signaling and integrate oncogenic signals from multiple RTKs. A special focus will be devoted to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling, a system offering relatively rich information. We will explore the role of selected microRNAs as bidirectional modulators of EGFR functions in cancer cells. In addition, we will present the emerging evidence for microRNAs being specifically modulated by oncogenic EGFR mutants and we will discuss how this impinges on EGFRmut driven chemoresistance, which fits into the tumor heterogeneity-driven cancer progression. Finally, we discuss how other non-coding RNA species are emerging as important modulators of cancer progression and why the scenario depicted herein is destined to become increasingly complex in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Donzelli
- Translational Oncogenomics, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, 00144 Rome, Italy
| | - Mario Cioce
- Translational Oncogenomics, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, 00144 Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Muti
- Dept of Oncology, McMaster University, Hamilton, On L8V1C3, Canada
| | - Sabrina Strano
- Molecular Chemoprevention Units, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, 00144 Rome, Italy; Dept of Oncology, McMaster University, Hamilton, On L8V1C3, Canada
| | - Yosef Yarden
- Dept of Biological Regulation, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Giovanni Blandino
- Translational Oncogenomics, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, 00144 Rome, Italy; Dept of Oncology, McMaster University, Hamilton, On L8V1C3, Canada.
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108
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Yang L, Liu Y, An H, Chang Y, Zhang W, Zhu Y, Xu L, Xu J. High Expression of Colony-Stimulating Factor 1 Receptor Associates with Unfavorable Cancer-Specific Survival of Patients with Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2015; 23:1044-52. [PMID: 26467457 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-015-4911-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1R), a single-pass type III transmembrane tyrosine-protein kinase, is mainly involved in inflammation and immune regulation to facilitate the progression of solid tumors. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of CSF-1R expression on clinical outcome of patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) after surgery. METHODS We retrospectively enrolled 268 patients with ccRCC undergoing nephrectomy between 2001 and 2004. Clinicopathologic features and cancer-specific survival (CSS) were collected. Western blot analysis was performed in the pairwise comparisons of CSF-1R expression in peritumor and tumor tissues of patients with ccRCC. Immunohistochemistry was conducted to determine CSF-1R expression level in tumor specimens. Survival analysis was performed by the Kaplan-Meier method. Cox regression models were used to evaluate the impact of prognostic factors on CSS. A concordance index was calculated to measure prognostic accuracy. A prognostic nomogram was constructed on the basis of the identified independent prognostic factors. RESULTS CSF-1R expression in tumor tissues was higher than in peritumor tissues in 71.4% (5 of 7) patients. CSF-1R expression of tumor tissues was positively associated with metastasis, tumor, node, metastasis classification system (TNM) stage, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status score and poor CSS. CSF-1R expression was determined as an independent prognostic factor for CSS in patients with ccRCC. Furthermore, extension of the well-established prognostic models with CSF-1R expression presented significantly improved prognostic accuracy. An efficient prognostic nomogram was constructed on the basis of the independent prognostic factors. CONCLUSIONS High CSF-1R expression is a potential independent adverse prognostic factor for CSS in patients with ccRCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yidong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huimin An
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Chang
- Department of Urology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weijuan Zhang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Yu Zhu
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Le Xu
- Department of Urology, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiejie Xu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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109
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Micro-RNAs and macrophage diversity in atherosclerosis: new players, new challenges…new opportunities for therapeutic intervention? Biochem Biophys Rep 2015; 3:202-206. [PMID: 26457329 PMCID: PMC4594832 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2015.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Efforts in experimental therapeutics of atherosclerosis are mostly focused on identifying candidate targets that can be exploited in developing new strategies to reduce plaque progression, induce its regression and/or improve stability of advanced lesions. Plaque macrophages are central players in all these processes, and consequently a significant amount of research is devoted to understanding mechanisms that regulate, for instance, macrophage apoptosis, necrosis or migration. Macrophage diversity is a key feature of the macrophage population in the plaque and can impact many aspects of lesion development. Thus, searching for molecular entities that contribute to atherorelevant functions of a specific macrophage type but not others may lead to identification of targets that can be exploited in phenotype selective modulation of the lesional macrophage. This however, remains an unmet goal. In recent years several studies have revealed critical functions of micro-RNAs (miRs) in mechanisms of macrophage polarization, and a number of miRs have emerged as being specific of distinctive macrophage subsets. Not only can these miRs represent the first step towards recognition of phenotype specific targets, but they may also pave the way to reveal novel atherorelevant pathways within macrophage subsets. This article discusses some of these recent findings, speculates on their potential relevance to atherosclerosis and elaborates on the prospective use of miRs to affect the function of plaque macrophages in a phenotype selective manner. Micro-RNAs are critical in macrophage polarization and atherosclerosis. Macrophage subsets have distinctive miRs. The use of miRs to target plaque macrophage subsets is discussed.
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110
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CSF-1/CSF-1R targeting agents in clinical development for cancer therapy. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2015; 23:45-51. [PMID: 26051995 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2015.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Macrophage infiltration has been identified as an independent poor prognostic factor for several cancer entities. In mouse tumor models macrophages orchestrate various tumor-promoting processes. This observation sparked an interest to therapeutically target these plastic innate immune cells. To date, blockade of colony stimulating factor-1 or its receptor represents the only truly selective approach to manipulate macrophages in cancer patients. Here, we discuss the currently available information on efficacy and safety of various CSF-1/CSF-1R inhibitors in cancer patients and highlight potential combination partners emerging from preclinical studies while considering the differences between mouse and human macrophage biology.
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111
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Understanding the Mysterious M2 Macrophage through Activation Markers and Effector Mechanisms. Mediators Inflamm 2015; 2015:816460. [PMID: 26089604 PMCID: PMC4452191 DOI: 10.1155/2015/816460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1144] [Impact Index Per Article: 127.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The alternatively activated or M2 macrophages are immune cells with high phenotypic heterogeneity and are governing functions at the interface of immunity, tissue homeostasis, metabolism, and endocrine signaling. Today the M2 macrophages are identified based on the expression pattern of a set of M2 markers. These markers are transmembrane glycoproteins, scavenger receptors, enzymes, growth factors, hormones, cytokines, and cytokine receptors with diverse and often yet unexplored functions. This review discusses whether these M2 markers can be reliably used to identify M2 macrophages and define their functional subdivisions. Also, it provides an update on the novel signals of the tissue environment and the neuroendocrine system which shape the M2 activation. The possible evolutionary roots of the M2 macrophage functions are also discussed.
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112
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Role of the macrophage in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders and other comorbidities in patients on effective antiretroviral treatment. J Neurovirol 2015; 21:235-41. [PMID: 25933548 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-015-0346-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) has altered the outcomes of HIV infection in treated populations by greatly reducing the incidence of opportunistic infections, cancer, and HIV-associated dementia. Despite these benefits, treated patients remain at high risk of chronic diseases affecting the peripheral organs and brain. Generally, these morbidities are attributed to persistence of latent HIV in resting T cells, chronic inflammation, and metabolic effects of ART. This review makes the case that monocytes/macrophages warrant attention as persistent reservoirs of HIV under ART, source of systemic and brain inflammation, and important targets for HIV eradication to control chronic HIV diseases.
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