Effects of radiotherapy on cognitive function in patients with low-grade glioma measured by the folstein mini-mental state examination

Brain irradiation: effects on normal brain parenchyma and radiation injury

Radiation therapy is a major treatment modality for malignant and benign brain tumors. Concerns of radiation effects on the brain tissue and neurocognitive function and quality of life increase as survival of patients treated for brain tumors improves. In this article, the clinical and neurobehavioral symptoms and signs of radiation-induced brain injury, possible histopathology, and the potential of functional, metabolic, and molecular imaging as a biomarker for assessment and prediction of neurotoxicity after brain irradiation and imaging findings in radiation necrosis are discussed.

[Advances in adults' gliomas biology, imaging and treatment]

A better understanding of gliomas biology is now leading to a combined histo-molecular classification of these tumors. In anaplastic gliomas ongoing studies depend on 1p/19q codeletion status and in glioblastomas on MGMT methylation status. Advanced brain tumor imaging elicits a better identification of gliomas evolutive potential of. In low-grade gliomas, the importance of maximal resection and the role of chemotherapy are being increasingly recognized. In anaplastic gliomas, phase III studies have clarified the respective roles of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In glioblastomas concomitant chemoradiotherapy is the standard. Most targeted therapies, namely anti-EGFR therapies have failed to demonstrate efficacy but anti-angiogenics are promising. The aim of this review is to discuss the main advances in adults' gliomas biology, imaging and treatment.

Health-related quality of life aspects in patients with low-grade glioma

Standard therapeutic options for brain tumors include surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Unfortunately, these same therapies pose risks of neurotoxicity, the most common long-term complications being radiation necrosis, chemotherapy-associated leukoencephalopathy, and cognitive deficits. Currently, there is no consensus on the treatment strategy for these tumors. Because of the relatively slow growth rate of low-grade gliomas, patients have a relatively long expected survival. Compared to traditional outcome measures like (progression-free) survival, evaluation of health-related quality of life may be time-consuming and burdensome for both the patient and the doctor. Besides, given the relatively low incidence of brain tumors and the ultimately fatal outcome of the disease, the interest in HRQOL emerged relatively late in these patients. Moreover, the notion that the disease itself may affect the patient's ability to judge his or her own functioning may hinder the use of patient self-reported measures. The studies presented in this chapter describe outcomes of both single dimensional and multidimensional methods of studying HRQOL. Although only few studies incorporated HRQOL as outcome measure, most studies have embraced the notion that an accurate assessment of HRQOL must be based on patient self-report. HRQOL instruments from other cancer groups are adapted for use with brain tumor patients. The multidimensional scales used to study changes in HRQOL studies in brain tumor patients provide a more comprehensive view of what is important to the patient concerning living with their disease and receiving treatment. In future trials, more sensitive measures of long-term cognitive, functional, and HRQOL outcomes on LGG patients at important time points over the disease trajectory are needed to better understand the changing needs that take place over time.

Is there a place for radiotherapy in low-grade gliomas?

The optimal management of supratentorial low-grade glioma remains controversial, and only limited definitive data is available to guide recommendations. Treatment decisions have to take into account both the management of symptoms and of tumour control, and must balance the benefits against the potential for treatment-related complications. Overall outcome is more dependent on patient and tumour-related characteristics such as age, tumour grade, histology and neurological function than treatment. From the pooled analysis of 2 randomized EORTC trials a prognostic score has been derived, median survival is varying from 3.2 to 7.8 years. Radiation therapy is usually the primary treatment modality; however its benefit on initial tumour control may be outweighed by potential late toxicity. To date only 4 large randomized trials in patients with low-grade glioma have been reported. It allows concluding that early radiotherapy does not improve overall survival and supports an initially expectative approach. Similarly, higher radiation doses above 45-50 Gy (fractions of 1.8-2.0 Gy) do not confer a better outcome but may be associated with increased toxicity. The adjuvant use of PCV-chemotherapy in high-risk patients also failed to improve progression-free and overall survival. An ongoing large randomized EORTC/NCIC trial is investigating the primary treatment with temozolomide chemotherapy versus standard radiotherapy in patients "at need for treatment". Tumour material will be collected in all patients, which ultimately may allow identifying on a molecular basis patients for whom one or another treatment strategy may fit best. Irrespective of new chemotherapeutic agents, radiotherapy is also evolving. Highly conformal techniques based on modern imaging as co-registered MRI scans, limiting the amount of normal tissue irradiated without compromising tumour control, will be the future approach in order to reduce neurotoxicity.

Cognition and quality of life after chemotherapy plus radiotherapy (RT) vs. RT for pure and mixed anaplastic oligodendrogliomas: radiation therapy oncology group trial 9402

PURPOSE

Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 9402 compared procarbazine, lomustine, and vincristine (PCV) chemotherapy plus radiation therapy (PCV + RT) vs. RT alone for anaplastic oligodendroglioma. Here we report longitudinal changes in cognition and quality of life, effects of patient factors and treatments on cognition, quality of life and survival, and prognostic implications of cognition and quality of life.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Cognition was assessed by Mini Mental Status Examination (MMSE) and quality of life by Brain-Quality of Life (B-QOL). Scores were analyzed for survivors and within 5 years of death. Shared parameter models evaluated MMSE/B-QOL with survival.

RESULTS

For survivors, MMSE and B-QOL scores were similar longitudinally and between treatments. For those who died, MMSE scores remained stable initially, whereas B-QOL slowly declined; both declined rapidly in the last year of life and similarly between arms. In the aggregate, scores decreased over time (p = 0.0413 for MMSE; p = 0.0016 for B-QOL) and were superior with age <50 years (p < 0.001 for MMSE; p = 0.0554 for B-QOL) and Karnofsky Performance Score (KPS) 80-100 (p < 0.001). Younger age and higher KPS were associated with longer survival. After adjusting for patient factors and drop-out, survival was longer after PCV + RT (HR = 0.66, 95% CI = 0.49-0.9, p = 0.0084; HR = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.54-1.01, p = 0.0592) in models with MMSE and B-QOL. In addition, there were no differences in MMSE and B-QOL scores between arms (p = 0.4752 and p = 0.2767, respectively); higher scores predicted longer survival.

CONCLUSION

MMSE and B-QOL scores held steady in the upper range in both arms for survivors. Younger, fitter patients had better MMSE and B-QOL and longer survival.

Cognitive and radiological effects of radiotherapy in patients with low-grade glioma: long-term follow-up

BACKGROUND

Our previous study on cognitive functioning among 195 patients with low-grade glioma (LGG) a mean of 6 years after diagnosis suggested that the tumour itself, rather than the radiotherapy used to treat it, has the most deleterious effect on cognitive functioning; only high fraction dose radiotherapy (>2 Gy) resulted in significant added cognitive deterioration. The present study assesses the radiological and cognitive abnormalities in survivors of LGG at a mean of 12 years after first diagnosis.

METHODS

Patients who have had stable disease since the first assessment were invited for follow-up cognitive assessment (letter-digit substitution test, concept shifting test, Stroop colour-word test, visual verbal learning test, memory comparison test, and categoric word fluency). Compound scores in six cognitive domains (attention, executive functioning, verbal memory, working memory, psychomotor functioning, and information processing speed) were calculated to detect differences between patients who had radiotherapy and patients who did not have radiotherapy. White-matter hyperintensities and global cortical atrophy were rated on MRI scans.

FINDINGS

65 patients completed neuropsychological follow-up at a mean of 12 years (range 6-28 years). 32 (49%) patients had received radiotherapy (three had fraction doses >2 Gy). The patients who had radiotherapy had more deficits that affected attentional functioning at the second follow-up, regardless of fraction dose, than those who did not have radiotherapy (-1.6 [SD 2.4] vs -0.1 [1.3], p=0.003; mean difference 1.4, 95% CI 0.5-2.4). The patients who had radiotherapy also did worse in measures of executive functioning (-2.0 [3.7] vs -0.5 [1.2], p=0.03; mean difference 1.5, 0.2-2.9) and information processing speed (-2.0 [3.7] vs -0.6 [1.5], p=0.05; mean difference 0.8, 0.009-1.6]) between the two assessments. Furthermore, attentional functioning deteriorated significantly between the first and second assessments in patients who had radiotherapy (p=0.25). In total, 17 (53%) patients who had radiotherapy developed cognitive disabilities deficits in at least five of 18 neuropsychological test parameters compared with four (27%) patients who were radiotherapy naive. White-matter hyperintensities and global cortical atrophy were associated with worse cognitive functioning in several domains.

INTERPRETATION

Long-term survivors of LGG who did not have radiotherapy had stable radiological and cognitive status. By contrast, patients with low-grade glioma who received radiotherapy showed a progressive decline in attentional functioning, even those who received fraction doses that are regarded as safe (</=2 Gy). These cognitive deficits are associated with radiological abnormalities. Our results suggest that the risk of long-term cognitive and radiological compromise that is associated with radiotherapy should be considered when treatment is planned.

FUNDING

Kaptein Fonds; Schering Plough.

Neurotoxicity of treatment

With the advent of effective treatment regimes increasing survival rates, delayed treatment-related cognitive dysfunction has been recognized as a significant problem. It is considered the most frequent complication among long-term survivors. WBRT may lead to deep brain atrophy and leukoencephalopathy associated with severe cognitive dysfunction, single-fraction dosages of greater than 2 Gy are related to an increased risk of late neurotoxicity, and other factors such as old age, concomitant chemotherapy and preexisting neurological disease increase this risk. However, the potential of focal radiotherapy (RT) with single dosages of 2 Gy or less to a maximal total dose of 60 Gy to produce significant neurotoxicity is less clear. There is a need for a concise neuropsychological test battery to be included in clinical trials, which should meet the following criteria: assess several domains found to be most sensitive to tumor and treatment effects, have standardized stimuli and administration procedures, have published normative data, have moderate to high test-retest reliability, have alternate forms or be relatively insensitive to practice effects, and therefore be suitable to monitor changes in cognitive function over time, include tests that have been translated into several Languages, which can be administered by a trained psychometrician or clinical research associate under supervision of a neuropsychologist, and have a relatively short total administration time. The neuropsychological domains to be evaluated should comprise the cognitive core deficit in brain-tumor patients, namely attention, executive functions (i.e., working memory, processing speed, sequencing abilities), verbal memory, and motor speed.

Quality of life and seizure control in patients with brain tumor-related epilepsy treated with levetiracetam monotherapy: preliminary data of an open-label study

The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the effects of levetiracetam monotherapy on seizure control, quality of life and neurocognitive performance in patients with brain tumor-related epilepsy. We present here preliminary data from 18 patients with follow-up of 6 months. We evaluated seizure frequency at baseline. We used administered Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), Karnofsky Performance Status (KPS), Barthel index (BI), QOLIE 31P (V2), EORTC QLQ-C30 and Adverse Events Profile. After 6 months, 16 patients were seizure free (88.9%), 2 (11.1%) had reduction in seizure frequency >50%. Compared to baseline, we observed a worsening of performance (KPS p = 0.011; BI = 0.008) and global lower cognitive performance (MMSE p = 0.011); distress related to seizure frequency (p = 0.003) and medication effects (p = 0.046) were significantly lower. Levetiracetam caused mild and reversible side effects. These preliminary data on LEV monotherapy in patients with brain tumor-related epilepsy show that this antiepileptic drug is efficacious and well tolerated.

Adult supratentorial low-grade glioma: long-term experience at a single institution

PURPOSE

To report the long-term follow-up of a cohort of adult patients with supratentorial low-grade glioma treated at a single institution.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A cohort of 145 adult patients treated at the London Regional Cancer Program between 1979 and 1995 was reviewed.

RESULTS

With a median follow-up of 105 months, the median progression-free survival was 61 months (95% confidence interval, 53-77), and the median overall survival was 118 months (95% confidence interval, 93-129). The 10- and 20-year progression-free and overall survival rate was 18% and 0% and 48% and 22%, respectively. Cox regression analysis confirmed the importance of age, histologic type, presence of seizures, Karnofsky performance status, and initial extent of surgery as prognostic variables for overall and cause-specific survival. Function among long-term survivors without tumor progression was good to excellent for most patients.

CONCLUSION

Low-grade glioma is a chronic disease, with most patients dying of their disease. However, long-term survival with good function is possible. Survival is determined primarily by the disease factors with selection and timing of adjuvant treatments having less influence on outcome.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging as a biomarker for prediction of radiation-induced neurocognitive dysfunction

PURPOSE

To determine whether early assessment of cerebral microvessel injury can predict late neurocognitive dysfunction after brain radiation therapy (RT).

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Ten patients who underwent partial brain RT participated in a prospective dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study. Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI was acquired prior to, at weeks 3 and 6 during, and 1 and 6 months after RT. Neuropsychological tests were done pre-RT and at the post-RT MRI follow-ups. The correlations between early delayed changes in neurocognitive functions and early changes in vascular variables during RT were analyzed.

RESULTS

No patients had tumor progression up to 6 months after RT. Vascular volumes and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability increased significantly in the high-dose regions during RT by 11% and 52% (P<0.05), respectively, followed by a decrease after RT. Changes in both vascular volume and BBB permeability correlated with the doses accumulated at the time of scans at weeks 3 and 6 during RT and 1 month after RT (P<0.03). Changes in verbal learning scores 6 months after RT were significantly correlated with changes in vascular volumes of left temporal (P<0.02) and frontal lobes (P<0.03), and changes in BBB permeability of left frontal lobes during RT (P<0.007). A similar correlation was found between recall scores and BBB permeability.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that the early changes in cerebral vasculature may predict delayed alterations in verbal learning and total recall, which are important components of neurocognitive function. Additional studies are required for validation of these findings.

Quality of life in adults with brain tumors: current knowledge and future directions

Quality of life is an important area of clinical neurooncology that is increasingly relevant as survivorship increases and as patients experience potential morbidities associated with new therapies. This review of quality-of-life studies in the brain tumor population aims to summarize what is currently known about quality of life in patients with both low-grade and high-grade tumors and suggest how we may use this knowledge to direct future research. To date, reports on quality of life have been primarily qualitative and focused on specific symptoms such as fatigue, sleep disorders, and cognitive dysfunction, as well as some symptom clusters. However, the increasing interest in exploring quality of life as a primary end point for cancer therapy has established a need for prospective, controlled studies to assess baseline and serial quality-of-life parameters in brain tumor patients in order to plan and evaluate appropriate and timely interventions for their symptoms.

Neuropsychological testing and biomarkers in the management of brain metastases

Prognosis for patients with brain metastasis remains poor. Whole brain radiation therapy is the conventional treatment option; it can improve neurological symptoms, prevent and improve tumor associated neurocognitive decline, and prevents death from neurologic causes. In addition to whole brain radiation therapy, stereotactic radiosurgery, neurosurgery and chemotherapy also are used in the management of brain metastases. Radiosensitizers are now currently being investigated as potential treatment options. All of these treatment modalities carry a risk of central nervous system (CNS) toxicity that can lead to neurocognitive impairment in long term survivors. Neuropsychological testing and biomarkers are potential ways of measuring and better understanding CNS toxicity. These tools may help optimize current therapies and develop new treatments for these patients. This article will review the current management of brain metastases, summarize the data on the CNS effects associated with brain metastases and whole brain radiation therapy in these patients, discuss the use of neuropsychological tests as outcome measures in clinical trials evaluating treatments for brain metastases, and give an overview of the potential of biomarker development in brain metastases research.

Quality of life in low-grade glioma patients receiving temozolomide

The purpose of this study was to describe the quality of life (QOL) of low-grade glioma (LGG) patients at baseline prior to chemotherapy and through 12 cycles of temozolomide (TMZ) chemotherapy. Patients with histologically confirmed LGG with only prior surgery were given TMZ for 12 cycles. QOL assessments by the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Brain (FACT-Br) were obtained at baseline prior to chemotherapy and at 2-month intervals while receiving TMZ. Patients with LGG at baseline prior to chemotherapy had higher reported social well-being scores (mean difference = 5.0; p < 0.01) but had lower reported emotional well-being scores (mean difference = 2.2; p < 0.01) compared to a normal population. Compared to patients with left hemisphere tumors, patients with right hemisphere tumors reported higher physical well-being scores (p = 0.01): 44% could not drive, 26% did not feel independent, and 26% were afraid of having a seizure. Difficulty with work was noted in 24%. Mean change scores at each chemotherapy cycle compared to baseline for all QOL subscales showed either no significant change or were significantly positive (p < 0.01). Patients with LGG on TMZ at baseline prior to chemotherapy reported QOL comparable to a normal population with the exception of social and emotional well-being, and those with right hemisphere tumors reported higher physical well-being scores compared to those with left hemisphere tumors. While remaining on therapy, LGG patients were able to maintain their QOL in all realms. LGG patients' QOL may be further improved by addressing their emotional well-being and their loss of independence in terms of driving or working.

Health-related quality of life in patients with high-grade glioma

Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) has become an increasingly important endpoint in cancer studies; however, the research into the HRQOL of patients with high-grade glioma (HGG) is sparse compared with that for patients with other neoplasms. Owing to the specific location and poor prognosis, it is more important and difficult to study HRQOL in patients with HGG than in those with other tumors; furthermore, the study of HRQOL in patients with HGG differs from that for patients with other tumors. In this review, we identified and compared the most frequently used instruments to assess HRQOL; analyzed specific facets and determinants of HRQOL (such as sex, tumor location and histological classification, depression, and cognitive function), as well as the association between HRQOL and survival; and appraised the effects of new treatments on HRQOL in patients with HGG from randomized controlled trials. Furthermore, we detected broadly existing problems and many contradictory outcomes and gave some proper interpretation and suggestions regarding them.

Incidence of brain atrophy and decline in mini-mental state examination score after whole-brain radiotherapy in patients with brain metastases: a prospective study

PURPOSE

To determine the incidence of brain atrophy and dementia after whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) in patients with brain metastases not undergoing surgery.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Eligible patients underwent WBRT to 40 Gy in 20 fractions with or without a 10-Gy boost. Brain magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) were performed before and soon after radiotherapy, every 3 months for 18 months, and every 6 months thereafter. Brain atrophy was evaluated by change in cerebrospinal fluid-cranial ratio (CCR), and the atrophy index was defined as postradiation CCR divided by preradiation CCR.

RESULTS

Of 101 patients (median age, 62 years) entering the study, 92 completed WBRT, and 45, 25, and 10 patients were assessable at 6, 12, and 18 months, respectively. Mean atrophy index was 1.24 +/- 0.39 (SD) at 6 months and 1.32 +/- 0.40 at 12 months, and 18% and 28% of the patients had an increase in the atrophy index by 30% or greater, respectively. No apparent decrease in mean MMSE score was observed after WBRT. Individually, MMSE scores decreased by four or more points in 11% at 6 months, 12% at 12 months, and 0% at 18 months. However, about half the decrease in MMSE scores was associated with a decrease in performance status caused by systemic disease progression.

CONCLUSIONS

Brain atrophy developed in up to 30% of patients, but it was not necessarily accompanied by MMSE score decrease. Dementia after WBRT unaccompanied by tumor recurrence was infrequent.

Unmet supportive care needs and interest in services among patients with a brain tumour and their carers

OBJECTIVES

To assess the supportive care needs and interest in related services among brain tumour patients and their carers and to compare the level of unmet needs to other cancer populations.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was posted to 363 households who were subscribed to the Queensland Cancer Fund Brain Tumour Support Service in 2005. Overall, 75 patients and 70 carers (response rate 29.8%) returned completed questionnaires. Measures were the Supportive Care Needs Survey (SCNS-34) and a brain tumour specific subscale for patients and carers, as well as the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS).

RESULTS

Patients most frequently reported requiring support to overcome fatigue, uncertainty about the future and not being able to do the things they used to do. Carers wanted help dealing with fears about the patients mental or physical deterioration, with the impact caring had on their own life, and with reducing stress in the patient's life. Among patients, 30% reported anxious mood and 17% depressed mood on the HADS, while corresponding numbers for carers were 40% and 10%, respectively. Patients and/or carers with higher than average supportive care needs expressed greater interest in support services, such as those to improve physical activity, using community services more effectively and to manage stress. Greater emotional distress predicted higher supportive care needs (e.g. odds ratio depressed patients=2.11; (95% confidence interval 1.10-4.03), while no association was detected between patients' or carers' demographic characteristics, or patients' self-reported medical status and higher than average supportive care needs.

CONCLUSION

The level of unmet supportive care needs observed among patients with a brain tumour and their carers is similar to that observed among cancer populations with metastatic disease.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Interventions for this group should integrate lifestyle, coping support, and neuropsychological rehabilitation.

A prospective study of quality of life in adults with newly diagnosed high-grade gliomas: comparison of patient and caregiver ratings of quality of life

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether a caregiver can provide reliable proxy quality of life (QOL) ratings of their adult significant other with a newly diagnosed high-grade glioma.

METHODS

This prospective QOL study was a companion protocol for 3 phase II high-grade glioma protocols. At study entry, 2 months, and 4 months after enrollment, 5 self-administered forms were completed by 197 patients and their caregivers to assess QOL.

RESULTS

Caregiver ratings of QOL were available, respectively, for 92%, 93%, and 88% of baseline, 1st, and 2nd subsequent follow-up evaluations of patients who had completed their QOL assessments. There was a strong relationship between patient and caregiver QOL scores (Spearman and intraclass correlation coefficients greater than 0.5 for 87% and 80% of the measurements, respectively); however, for some measures (eg, the profiles of mood states short form) there was better agreement between patient and caregiver scores when the QOL scores were higher. There was good agreement between patient and proxy ratings independent of the cognitive function of the patient, except for the profiles of mood states short form with better correlation between patients and caregivers for those patients without cognitive impairment.

CONCLUSIONS

In this multi-institutional prospective study there is a strong correlation between high-grade glioma patient and caregiver QOL scores, although for some measures this correlation is stronger for those patients without cognitive impairment. To improve the acquisition and the accuracy of assessing QOL status in high-grade glioma patients, proxy ratings from caregivers should also be obtained in conjunction with the patient, and consideration be given to substituting proxy ratings when a patient's self-report is absent.

Feasibility study of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in patients with brain metastases

GOAL OF WORK

Detection of cognitive impairment in patients with brain metastases is important for both patient management and clinical trials. The most commonly used cognitive screen, the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), though convenient, is not sensitive in these patients. More sensitive tools are less convenient and, therefore, uncommonly used. Therefore, a practical and sensitive tool is needed. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a good candidate, shown to be sensitive in detecting mild cognitive impairment in the pre-dementia setting. This study is the first to explore the MoCA in cancer patients and is aimed at determining the feasibility of administering the MoCA in brain tumor patients. The secondary objective is to explore the relationship between MoCA and MMSE scores.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Forty patients with brain metastases being treated with whole brain radiotherapy were prospectively accrued from January to May 2007. All patients were administered both the MoCA and MMSE.

MAIN RESULTS

The MoCA was completed in 10 min in 88% of patients. 92% of all the patients found the MoCA to be only mildly or not at all inconvenient. Eighty percent of the patients were deemed cognitively impaired by the MoCA compared with 30% by the MMSE (p < 0.0001). Of the 28 patients with a normal MMSE, 71% had cognitive impairment according to the MoCA. Overall, 50% of the patients had an abnormal MoCA, yet normal MMSE.

CONCLUSION

The MoCA was well tolerated and provided additional information over the MMSE, justifying further validation studies of the MoCA in brain tumor patients.

Advances in radiation therapy for brain tumors

Radiation therapy is used postoperatively as adjunctive therapy to decrease local failure; to delay tumor progression and prolong survival; as a curative treatment; as a therapy that halts further tumor growth; to alter function; and for palliation. Registration of MRI scan data sets with the treatment-planning CT scan is essential for accurate definition of the tumor and surrounding organs at risk. Integrating additional imaging studies that reflect the biologic characteristics of central nervous system tumors is an area of active research. Conformal treatment delivery is used to spare adjacent normal tissue from receiving unnecessary dose. In the dose range used when treating these tumors, the probability of causing serious late toxicity is relatively low and secondary malignancies are rare.

Psychiatric issues in toxic exposures

Military, occupational, and environmental events can cause toxic injuries that require psychiatric diagnosis and treatment. This article reviews the psychiatric effects of neurotoxins, including nerve gases, ionizing radiation, insecticides, heavy metals, solvents, and other toxic agents. Diagnostic considerations and clinical tests for further evaluation of the numerous psychiatric conditions and symptoms caused by toxic exposures are discussed.

Prise en charge des gliomes de bas grade: série rétrospective de 201 patients

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Optimal treatment for low-grade glioma remains controversial. Moreover, though surgery is recommended for disease management, evidence is lacking concerning the appropriate extent of surgery and the use of adjunctive therapy. Available data is basically retrospective, coming from series with substantial limitations. We reviewed our institution's series in order to evaluate the efficiency of surgical management and the influence of the extent of surgical removal for patients with low-grade glioma.

METHODS

Data were collected from a series of 201 patients who underwent first-intention therapy for low-grade glioma, the standard practice in our institution between 1994 and 2005. After applying certain exclusion criteria, we retained for analysis 123 patients with grade II glioma (WHO classification). We compared progression-free survival curves for the three surgical treatment groups defined as biopsy, partial removal, or total removal.

RESULTS

Statistical evaluation of the progression free survival shows a benefit in total surgery as a first intention treatment. No statistical significance was demonstrated between partial surgery and stereotactic biopsy.

CONCLUSION

For patients with low-grade glioma we recommend total surgical removal as first intention management.

Neurocognitive Function of Patients with Brain Metastasis Who Received Either Whole Brain Radiotherapy Plus Stereotactic Radiosurgery or Radiosurgery Alone

PURPOSE

To determine how the omission of whole brain radiotherapy (WBRT) affects the neurocognitive function of patients with one to four brain metastases who have been treated with stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

In a prospective randomized trial between WBRT+SRS and SRS alone for patients with one to four brain metastases, we assessed the neurocognitive function using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Of the 132 enrolled patients, MMSE scores were available for 110.

RESULTS

In the baseline MMSE analyses, statistically significant differences were observed for total tumor volume, extent of tumor edema, age, and Karnofsky performance status. Of the 92 patients who underwent the follow-up MMSE, 39 had a baseline MMSE score of < or =27 (17 in the WBRT+SRS group and 22 in the SRS-alone group). Improvements of > or =3 points in the MMSEs of 9 WBRT+SRS patients and 11 SRS-alone patients (p = 0.85) were observed. Of the 82 patients with a baseline MMSE score of > or =27 or whose baseline MMSE score was < or =26 but had improved to > or =27 after the initial brain treatment, the 12-, 24-, and 36-month actuarial free rate of the 3-point drop in the MMSE was 76.1%, 68.5%, and 14.7% in the WBRT+SRS group and 59.3%, 51.9%, and 51.9% in the SRS-alone group, respectively. The average duration until deterioration was 16.5 months in the WBRT+SRS group and 7.6 months in the SRS-alone group (p = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study have revealed that, for most brain metastatic patients, control of the brain tumor is the most important factor for stabilizing neurocognitive function. However, the long-term adverse effects of WBRT on neurocognitive function might not be negligible.

Role of exclusive chemotherapy as first line treatment in oligodendroglioma

PURPOSE

The optimal therapy of oligodendrogliomas remains uncertain. Although chemosensitive, these tumors are not chemocurable. We investigated whether chemotherapy delays the need for radiation therapy (RT) without decreasing length and quality of survival.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Among 89 patients treated for oligodendrogliomas at the Centre Léon Bérard of Lyon from 1982 to 1999, 59 patients fitted inclusion criteria, having had centrally reviewed pure oligodendroglioma requiring treatment. According to the WHO's classification 35 patients had Grade III and 24, Grade II oligodendrogliomas.

RESULTS

According to the intent to treat, patients were retrospectively classified in three groups as exclusive RT (Group 1), radio-chemotherapy (Group 2), or exclusive chemotherapy (Group 3). Median progression-free survival (PFS): was 47 months [95% confidence interval (CI) 39-56], and median overall survival (OS) was 109 months (95% CI 83-134). In univariate analysis, PFS was correlated with frontal location and WHO classification; OS was correlated with frontal location and Post-operative Karnosky performans status both appearing as independent prognostic factors for OS in multivariate analysis. There was no significant difference between the treatment groups with regard to PFS (P = 0.82) and OS (P = 0.64). In the group of patients treated with exclusive chemotherapy the 5-year PFS and OS rates were 44 and 71%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Front-line exclusive chemotherapy results in prolonged OS in patients with confirmed pure oligodendroglioma. Whether this strategy improves quality of life remains debatable.

Normal Tissue Tolerance Dose Metrics for Radiation Therapy of Major Organs

Late organ toxicity from therapeutic radiation is a function of many confounding variables. The total dose delivered to the organ and the volumes of organ exposed to a given dose of radiation are 2 important variables that can be used to predict the risk of late toxicity. Three-dimensional radiation planning enables accurate calculation of the volume of tissue exposed to a given dose of radiation, graphically depicted as a dose-volume histogram. Dose metrics obtained from this 3-dimensional dataset can be used as a quantitative measure to predict late toxicity. This review summarizes the published clinical data on the risk of late toxicity as a function of quantitative dose metrics and attempts to offer suggested dose constraints for radiation treatment planning.

Delirium in Older Adults With Cancer: Implications for Practice and Research

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

To provide a comprehensive review of the literature and existing evidence-based findings on delirium in older adults with cancer.

DATA SOURCES

Published articles, guidelines, and textbooks.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Although delirium generally is recognized as a common geriatric syndrome, a paucity of empirical evidence exists to guide early recognition and treatment of this sequelae of cancer and its treatment in older adults. Delirium probably is more prevalent than citations note because the phenomenon is under-recognized in clinical practice across varied settings of cancer care.

CONCLUSIONS

Extensive research is needed to formulate clinical guidelines to manage delirium. A focus on delirium in acute care and at the end of life precludes identification of this symptom in ambulatory care, where most cancer therapies are used. Particular emphasis should address the early recognition of prodromal signs of delirium to reduce symptom severity.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING

Ongoing assessment opportunities and close proximity to patients' treatment experiences foster oncology nurses' mastery of this common exemplar of altered cognition in older adults with cancer. Increasing awareness of and knowledge delineating characteristics of delirium in older patients with cancer can promote early recognition, optimum treatment, and minimization of untoward consequences associated with the historically ignored example of symptom distress.

Changes in attentional performance of children and young adults with localized primary brain tumors after conformal radiation therapy

PURPOSE

To prospectively assess the impact of conformal radiation therapy (CRT) and demographic and clinical variables on four measures of attention in pediatric and young adult patients with localized primary brain tumors.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We prospectively evaluated 120 patients with primary brain tumors, ages 2 to 24.4 years (median, 9.2 years). Evaluations were done using the computerized Conners' Continuous Performance Test (CCPT). We analyzed errors of omission (inattentiveness), errors of commission (impulsivity), reaction time, and an overall index of performance before CRT, weekly during CRT, and serially up to 60 months after the start of CRT.

RESULTS

Before CRT, patients exhibited mild inattentiveness. During CRT, impulsivity decreased significantly (P = .002). After CRT, inattentiveness increased significantly (P = .03), and global attention disorders were associated with craniopharyngioma (P < .0001), supratentorial tumors (P = .008), optic pathway and diencephalic tumors (P = .012), and subtotal resection of the tumor (P = .010).

CONCLUSION

Brain tumors and their treatment impair sustained attention and reaction time. A decline in impulsivity and relative stability of the other CCPT scores over the course of CRT demonstrated the absence of early radiation-related cognitive sequelae. Local tumor effects, initial surgical intervention, and focal irradiation of central structures contribute to long-lasting attentional problems in pediatric and young adult patients.

Detrimental effects of tumor progression on cognitive function of patients with high-grade glioma

PURPOSE

There is growing recognition that the primary cause of cognitive deficits in adult patients with primary brain tumors is the tumor itself and more significantly, tumor progression. To assess the cognitive performance of high-grade glioma patients, prospectively collected cognitive performance data were analyzed.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We studied 1,244 high-grade brain tumor patients entered onto eight consecutive North Central Cancer Treatment Group treatment trials that used radiation and nitrosourea-based chemotherapy. Imaging studies and Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores recorded at baseline, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months were analyzed to assess tumor status and cognitive function over time.

RESULTS

The proportion of patients without tumor progression who experienced clinically significant cognitive deterioration compared with baseline was stable at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months (18%, 16%, 14%, and 13%, respectively). In patients without radiographic evidence of progression, clinically significant deterioration in MMSE scores was a strong predictor of a more rapid time to tumor progression and death. At evaluations preceding interval radiographic evidence of progression, there was significant deterioration in MMSE scores for patients who were to experience progression, whereas the scores remained stable for the patients who did not have tumor progression.

CONCLUSION

The proportion of high-grade glioma patients with cognitive deterioration over time is stable, most consistent with the constant pressure of tumor progression over time. Although other factors may contribute to cognitive decline, the predominant cause of cognitive decline seems to be subclinical tumor progression that precedes radiographic changes.

Effets à long terme de la chimiothérapie chez 7 patients présentant un gliome de bas grade symptomatique

INTRODUCTION

Whether aggressive treatment or no treatment is the optimal management for low-grade gliomas is controversial. However, symptomatic low-grade gliomas require prompt therapeutic intervention because of neurological impairment, uncontrolled seizures, and deterioration of life quality.

METHODS

We report the long-term follow-up, 71 months, of seven patients treated by procarbazine, lomustine and vincristine (PCV) therapy for a symptomatic low-grade oligodendrogliomatous tumor. The mean age at diagnosis was 47 years, the mean time from first symptoms to initiation of PCV therapy was 62 months (range 15-147).

RESULTS

All patients initially responded favorably, with improvement of the neurological symptoms and radiological response. Chemotherapy was clinically well tolerated, the main side effect being low hematological toxicity. During the follow-up, no progression was observed in two patients. For the five remaining patients, the time to progression after the PCV induction was 56+/-12 months (range 38 to 73). Four of these patients showed favorable response to a second line of treatment.

CONCLUSION

PCV therapy is an interesting therapeutic option for progressively symptomatic low-grade gliomas, even in cases with large tumoral volume. This treatment, of moderate toxicity, improves the quality of life and can result in long-term tumor stabilization.

Current role of radiation therapy in the management of malignant brain tumors

The objective of this article is to explain how the current management of malignant brain tumors has evolved, using the foundation of evidence-based literature. Radiotherapy plays a central role in the multidisciplinary management of primary brain tumors and brain metastases. The techniques of radiotherapy continue to be refined to optimize local control while minimizing potential treatment-related neurocognitive toxicities.

Oligodendroglial tumors

Oligodendroglial tumors represent approximately 4-7% of all gliomas; however, in some series the incidence has been reported to be as high as 10-20% because of improved histological appreciation and recently recognized molecular signatures. Oligodendroglial tumors are classified as being low-grade oligodendroglial tumors, high-grade anaplastic oligodendroglial tumors or mixed oligo-astrocytic tumors. The mixed tumors can again be low-grade or high-grade. The recent European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer and Radiation Therapy Oncology Group randomized trials have provided level 1 evidence regarding the best management of these tumors. This review provides an overview of oligodendroglial tumors and discusses contemporary and evolving treatment strategies.

Health Status Measurements at Diagnosis As Predictors of Survival Among Adults With Brain Tumors

Purpose

The intent of this study was to determine whether baseline measures of functional capacity and performance could be used to predict survival in adults following the diagnosis of brain tumors.

Patients and Methods

Comprehensive health status and health-related quality of life (HRQL) were measured using the Health Utilities Index (HUI; McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada) system by a self-assessment questionnaire in a survey of 100 consecutive patients. The Karnofsky Performance Score (KPS) and Folstein's Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores were measured by a physician blinded to the HUI results. The patients were observed for up to 5 years to recorded dates of death.

Results

An HUI questionnaire was completed for 93% of the patients and 69% died within 5 years of assessment. The HUI revealed a burden of morbidity and complexity of disability that far exceeded that reported for the general population. KPS and MMSE correlated strongly with each other (r = 0.52; P < .001). A decrease of 0.1 units in HUI Mark 2 (HUI2) self-care single-attribute utility score was associated with an increased hazard of death of 30% (P = .023) for patients with low-grade tumors (n=25). For patients with high-grade tumors (n=56), a 10 unit decrease in the KPS, a 5 unit decrease in MMSE, and a 0.1 decrease in HUI Mark 3 (HUI3) speech and dexterity single-attribute scores were associated with an increased hazard of death of 20% (P = .022), 26% (P = .015), 36% (P = .021), and 18% (P = .035), respectively.

Conclusion

Scores derived from the measurement of HRQL following diagnosis can predict survival in adults with brain tumors.

Low‐Grade Gliomas in Adults

Low-grade gliomas are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms usually encountered in younger patient populations. These tumors represent a unique challenge because most patients will survive a decade or more and may be at a higher risk for treatment-related complications. Clinical observations over the years have identified a subset of low-grade gliomas that tends to manifest more aggressive clinical behavior and require earlier, more aggressive intervention. Clinical and molecular parameters may allow better assessment of prognosis and application of risk-adjusted management strategies that may include resection, radiation, or chemotherapy. Improved methods of long-term cognitive and functional assessment are desperately needed in this patient population.

A prospective study of quality of life in adults with newly diagnosed high-grade gliomas: the impact of the extent of resection on quality of life and survival

OBJECTIVE

To describe the quality of life (QOL) over time for adults with newly diagnosed high-grade gliomas and to examine the relationship between QOL and outcome data collected in three prospective cooperative group clinical trials.

METHODS

The QOL study was a companion protocol for three Phase II high-grade glioma protocols. Five self-administered forms were completed by patients to assess QOL at study entry, 2 months, and 4 months after enrollment.

RESULTS

QOL data were available for baseline, first, and second subsequent follow-up evaluations for 89%, 71%, and 69% of patients, respectively. A significant proportion of patients (47.1%) experienced impaired QOL (QOL < or = 50) in at least one measure at subsequent evaluations, whereas most patients (88%) with impaired QOL at baseline continued to have impaired QOL at subsequent evaluations. On multivariable analyses, baseline QOL measures were predictive of QOL at the time of follow-up. In addition, patients who underwent a gross total resection were much less likely to have impaired QOL (P = 0.006), were less likely to experience worsening depression (P = 0.0008), and were more likely to have improved QOL (P = 0.003) at their first follow-up evaluation. Changes in QOL measures over time were not found to be associated with survival in multivariable analyses that adjusted for known prognostic variables; variables that were independently associated with improved survival were better performance status (P < 0.001), younger age (P < 0.001), and greater extent of resection (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Baseline QOL was predictive of QOL over time. Gross total resection was associated with longer survival and improved QOL over time for patients with high-grade gliomas.

New concepts in surgery of WHO grade II gliomas: functional brain mapping, connectionism and plasticity – a review

Despite a recent literature supporting the impact of surgery on the natural history of low-grade glioma (LGG), the indications of resection still remain a matter of debate, especially because of the frequent location of these tumors within eloquent brain areas - thus with a risk to induce a permanent postoperative deficit. Therefore, since the antagonist nature of this surgery is to perform the most extensive glioma removal possible, while preserving the function and the quality of life, new concepts were recently applied to LGG resection in order to optimize the benefit/risk ratio of the surgery.First, due to the development of functional mapping methods, namely perioperative neurofunctional imaging and intrasurgical direct electrical stimulation, the study of cortical functional organization is currently possible for each patient - in addition to an extensive neuropsychological assessment. Such knowledge is essential because of the inter-individual anatomo-functional variability, increased in tumors due to cerebral plasticity phenomena. Thus, brain mapping enables to envision and perform a resection according to individual functional boundaries.Second, since LGG invades not only cortical but also subcortical structures, and shows an infiltrative progression along the white matter tracts, new techniques of anatomical tracking and functional mapping of the subcortical white matter pathways were also used with the goal to study the individual effective connectivity - which needs imperatively to be preserved during the resection.Third, the better understanding of brain plasticity mechanisms, induced both by the slow-growing LGG and by the surgery itself, were equally studied in each patient and applied to the surgical strategy by incorporating individual dynamic potential of reorganization into the operative planning. The integration of these new concepts of individual functional mapping, connectivity and plastic potential to the surgery of LGG has allowed an extent of surgical indications, an optimization of the quality of resection (neuro-oncological benefit), and a minimization of the risk of sequelae (benefit on the quality of life). In addition, such a strategy has also fundamental applications, since it represents a new door to the connectionism and cerebral plasticity.

Phase II study of donepezil in irradiated brain tumor patients: effect on cognitive function, mood, and quality of life

PURPOSE

A prospective, open-label phase II study was conducted to determine whether donepezil, a US Food and Drug Administration-approved reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used to treat mild to moderate Alzheimer's type dementia, improved cognitive functioning, mood, and quality of life (QOL) in irradiated brain tumor patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Thirty-four patients received donepezil 5 mg/d for 6 weeks, then 10 mg/d for 18 weeks, followed by a washout period of 6 weeks off drug. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, 12, 24 (end of treatment), and 30 weeks (end of wash-out). All tests were administered by a trained research nurse.

RESULTS

Of 35 patients who initiated the study, 24 patients (mean age, 45 years) remained on study for 24 weeks and completed all outcome assessments. All 24 patients had a primary brain tumor, mostly low-grade glioma. Scores significantly improved between baseline (pretreatment) and week 24 on measures of attention/concentration, verbal memory, and figural memory and a trend for verbal fluency (all P < .05). Confused mood also improved from baseline to 24 weeks (P = .004), with a trend for fatigue and anger (all P < .05). Health-related QOL improved significantly from baseline to 24 weeks, particularly, for brain specific concerns with a trend for improvement in emotional and social functioning (all P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Cognitive functioning, mood, and health-related QOL were significantly improved following a 24-week course of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor donepezil. Toxicities were minimal. We are planning a double blinded, placebo-controlled, phase III trial of donepezil to confirm these favorable results.

Hypofractionated stereotactic radiotherapy for low grade glioma at McGill University: long-term follow-up

Small, well-defined, unresectable low-grade gliomas are attractive targets for stereotactic irradiation. Fractionated stereotactic irradiation of these targets has the theoretical benefit of increased normal tissue sparing beyond that provided by the physical characteristics of stereotactic radiosurgery. From July 1987 to November 1992, 21 patients were treated for low-grade glioma at our institution using a hypofractionated regimen of stereotactic radiotherapy. All patients had well-circumscribed, < 40 mm tumors. No patient had had prior radiotherapy. All lesions were histologically proven WHO grade I or II glial tumors. Lesions involved sensitive brain structures and were deemed unresectable. A typical dose of 42 Gy was delivered in 6 fractions over a two-week period using rigid immobilization and a linac-based dynamic stereotactic radiosurgical technique. Patients had a median age of 23 years (9-74) and were predominantly female (60%). Median tumor diameter was 20 mm. With a median follow-up for living patients of 13.3 years, the actuarial 5, 10, and 15-year overall survival rates are 76%, 71%, and 63%, respectively. Treatment was acutely well tolerated although three patients experienced late post-therapy complications. Our results and those of 241 patients treated in nine other institutional series are reviewed. Despite some examples of favorable short-term outcomes, all reported series are highly selected and thus likely biased. The data regarding the use of SRS is limited and, in our opinion, insufficient to claim a clear therapeutic advantage to SRS in the initial management of low-grade glioma. Our own results with hypofractionated stereotactic radiotherapy are similar to those expected with standard therapy.

Diffusely infiltrative low-grade gliomas in adults

Diffusely infiltrating low-grade gliomas (LGGs) include astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas, and mixed oligoastrocytomas (WHO grade 2). Due to the routine use of magnetic resonance imaging, there is an increasing need to formulate treatment guidelines for patients with LGGs. However, there is little consensus about the optimal treatment strategy for diffusely infiltrative LGGs, and the clinical management of LGGs is one of the most controversial areas in neurooncology. Although the standard of care has not been established, several randomized trials are beginning to provide some answers. Furthermore, laboratory correlative studies are defining subsets of LGG that may identify patients with better prognoses and increased chance of responding to therapy. This article reviews the most recent data regarding the treatment of LGG, emphasizing evidenced based approaches from current clinical trials.

Low-grade gliomas: an update on pathology and therapy

Low-grade gliomas (LGG) are not benign neoplasms. Patients with LGG eventually die as a consequence of this disease. Although the survival of patients with LGG is better than that of patients with higher-grade tumours, many of the treatments can produce or contribute to chronic impairment, particularly radiotherapy. Chemotherapy has emerged as a promising therapy, although definitive findings are awaited. Breakthroughs in molecular biology have improved our understanding of tumours and have led to the development of novel treatments and better prognoses. Ongoing clinical trials will help to elucidate the optimum management of patients with LGG.

Long-term efficacy of early versus delayed radiotherapy for low-grade astrocytoma and oligodendroglioma in adults: the EORTC 22845 randomised trial

BACKGROUND

Postoperative policies of "wait-and-see" and radiotherapy for low-grade glioma are poorly defined. A trial in the mid 1980s established the radiation dose. In 1986 the EORTC Radiotherapy and Brain Tumor Groups initiated a prospective trial to compare early radiotherapy with delayed radiotherapy. An interim analysis has been reported. We now present the long-term results.

METHODS

After surgery, patients from 24 centres across Europe were randomly assigned to either early radiotherapy of 54 Gy in fractions of 1.8 Gy or deferred radiotherapy until the time of progression (control group). Patients with low-grade astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma, mixed oligoastrocytoma, and incompletely resected pilocytic astrocytoma, with a WHO performance status 0-2 were eligible. Analysis was by intention to treat, and primary endpoints were overall and progression-free survival.

FINDINGS

157 patients were assigned early radiotherapy, and 157 control. Median progression-free survival was 5.3 years in the early radiotherapy group and 3.4 years in the control group (hazard ratio 0.59, 95% CI 0.45-0.77; p<0.0001). However, overall survival was similar between groups: median survival in the radiotherapy group was 7.4 years compared with 7.2 years in the control group (hazard ratio 0.97, 95% CI 0.71-1.34; p=0.872). In the control group, 65% of patients received radiotherapy at progression. At 1 year, seizures were better controlled in the early radiotherapy group.

INTERPRETATION

Early radiotherapy after surgery lengthens the period without progression but does not affect overall survival. Because quality of life was not studied, it is not known whether time to progression reflects clinical deterioration. Radiotherapy could be deferred for patients with low-grade glioma who are in a good condition, provided they are carefully monitored.

Cognitive function after radiotherapy for supratentorial low-grade glioma: a North Central Cancer Treatment Group prospective study

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effects of cranial radiotherapy (RT) on cognitive function in patients with supratentorial low-grade glioma.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Twenty adult patients with supratentorial low-grade glioma were treated with 50.4 Gy (10 patients) or 64.8 Gy (10 patients) localized RT. The patients then were evaluated with an extensive battery of psychometric tests at baseline (before RT) and at approximately 18-month intervals for as long as 5 years after completing RT. To allow patients to serve as their own controls, cognitive performance was evaluated as change in scores over time. All patients underwent at least two evaluations.

RESULTS

Baseline test scores were below average compared with age-specific norms. At the second evaluation, the groups' mean test scores were higher than their initial performances on all psychometric measures, although the improvement was not statistically significant. No changes in cognitive performance were seen during the evaluation period when test scores were analyzed by age, treatment, tumor location, tumor type, or extent of resection.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive function was stable after RT in these patients evaluated prospectively during 3 years of follow-up. Slight improvements in some cognitive areas are consistent with practice effects attributable to increased familiarity with test procedures and content.