Surface-enhanced infrared spectroscopy

Attenuated total reflection surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy at a cobalt electrode

In situ surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) in attenuated total reflection (ATR) configuration has been extended to a Co electrode fabricated by potentiostatic deposition of a 50-nm-thick Co overlayer onto a Au underlayer chemically preformed on the reflecting plane of an ATR Si hemi-cylindrical prism. The as-prepared Co-on-Au film was characterized with atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The AFM images of the films before and after Co coating revealed island structures facilitating the SEIRA effect with Co nanoparticles much smaller than the underlying Au ones. The XPS spectrum did not contain any characteristic peaks related to Au, suggestive of a virtually pinhole-free nature of the Co overlayer. The voltammetric response of the as-prepared films in phosphate buffer solution (PBS, pH 6.9) was characteristic of a polycrystalline bulk Co electrode. Normally directed unipolar bands were found for surface probe CO molecules on Co surfaces in the PBS with their major band (CO(L)) intensity being one order of magnitude higher than that obtained with conventional IR reflection-absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS). By taking advantage of the higher detection sensitivity, the bands for linearly bonded CO (CO(L)) at 1965-2005 cm(-1) and the multi-bonded (CO(M)) band at 1845-1875 cm(-1) were clearly detected with their Stark tuning rates being 59 and 63 cm(-1) x V(-1), respectively, which would be otherwise unobtainable with the conventional IRRAS in the neutral solution.

Surface-enhanced spectroscopic investigation of the adsorption properties of hydroxybenzoic acid isomers onto metallic surfaces

Surface-enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS), surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRA), temperature-programmed desorption (TPD), and density functional theory were used to characterize the adsorption properties of the hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA) isomers including ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid (OHA), meta-hydroxybenzoic acid (MHA), and para-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHA) using various deposition solvents with different polar properties. SERS typically enhances the Raman shifts of the monolayer, while SEIRA is a longer range effect, often providing vibrational enhancement to both the monolayer and multilayer. TPD analysis showed that OHA adsorption to silver is weaker than MHA/PHA, most likely as a result of the strong OHA intramolecular hydrogen-bonding. SERS and SEIRA demonstrated that OHA ionized efficiently in the monolayer and multilayer independent of the solvent polarity because of OHA's low pK(a) (2.98). MHA/PHA ionized better than OHA in the multilayer in less polar deposition solvents, and a decrease in the polarity of the deposition solvent created additional ordering in the MHA monolayer while inducing stronger adsorption in the PHA monolayer. It is believed that a lower level of solvation with less polar deposition solvents allowed for more adsorbate/substrate interaction and more intermolecular attraction. The addition of more MHA to a multilayer resulted only in stronger SEIRA peaks. As a PHA multilayer thickened there was significant structural changes represented by new bands and spectral peak shifts with greater intermolecular attraction as the multilayer approached bulk properties. Due to the range of applications involving HBA isomers, these studies could find significant applications in biochemistry, medicine, nanotechnology and environmental science.

Interface states and bio-conjugation of CdSe/ZnS core-shell quantum dots

The paper presents the results of photoluminescence (PL) and Raman scattering studies of non-conjugated and bio-conjugated CdSe/ZnS core-shell quantum dots (QDs). The commercial CdSe/ZnS QDs used are characterized by color emission with maxima at 605-610 nm (2.03-2.05 eV). PL spectra of non-conjugated QDs are the superposition of PL bands related to exciton emission in the CdSe core (2.03-2.05 eV) and to hot electron-hole emission via defect states at the CdSe/ZnS interface (2.37 and 2.68 eV). QD conjugation was performed with biomolecules -- the antihuman interleukin 10 antibody (antihuman IL10). The PL spectra of bio-conjugated QDs have been changed dramatically: only one PL band related to exciton emission in the CdSe core was detected in bio-conjugated QDs. To explain this effect a model has been proposed which assumes that the QD bio-conjugation process is accompanied by the recharging of acceptor-like interface states at the CdSe/ZnS interface. A comparative analysis of normalized PL spectra of non-conjugated CdSe/ZnS QDs with different intensities of interface state PL has confirmed the proposed electron-hole recombination model in QDs.

Dip-pen-nanolithographic patterning of metallic, semiconductor, and metal oxide nanostructures on surfaces

Dip-pen nanolithography (DPN) is a powerful method to pattern nanostructures on surfaces by the controlled delivery of an "ink" coating the tip of an atomic force microscope upon scanning and contacting with surfaces. The growing interest in the use of nanoparticles as structural and functional elements for the fabrication of nanodevices suggests that the DPN-stimulated patterning of nanoparticles on surfaces might be a useful technique to assemble hierarchical architectures of nanoparticles that could pave methodologies for functional nanocircuits or nanodevices. This Review presents different methodologies for the nanolithographic patterning of metallic, semiconductor, and metal oxide nanostructures on surfaces. The mechanisms involved in the formation of the nanostructures are discussed and the effects that control the dimensions of the resulting patterns are reviewed. The possible applications of the nanostructures are also addressed.

Resonant plasmonic and vibrational coupling in a tailored nanoantenna for infrared detection

A novel resonant mechanism involving the interference of a broadband plasmon with the narrowband vibration from molecules is presented. With the use of this concept, we demonstrate experimentally the enormous enhancement of the vibrational signals from less than one attomol of molecules on individual gold nanowires, tailored to act as plasmonic nanoantennas in the infrared. By detuning the resonance via a change in the antenna length, a Fano-type behavior of the spectral signal is observed, which is clearly supported by full electrodynamical calculations. This resonant mechanism can be a new paradigm for sensitive infrared identification of molecular groups.

Practically modified attenuated total reflection surface-enhanced IR absorption spectroscopy for high-quality frequency-extended detection of surface species at electrodes

A practically modified ATR configuration has been proposed for in situ electrochemical surface-enhanced IR absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) by sandwiching an ultrathin water interlayer between a hemicylindrical ZnSe prism and a Si wafer as an integrated window. This new ATR optics significantly enhances the throughput of an effective IR beam across the ZnSe/gap/Si/metal film, enabling high-quality spectral fingerprints down to 700 cm(-1) to be readily detected at larger incidence angles without compromising the electrochemical feasibility and stability of metallic films deposited on Si. The advantages of this modified ATR-SEIRAS have been initially applied to explore two selected systems: wide-ranged in situ ATR-SEIRA spectra provided strong evidence in support of the formate intermediate pathway for methanol electrooxidation at the Pt electrode in an acid solution; in addition, new spectral fingerprints revealed comprehensive orientational information about of the p-nitrobenzoate species at Pt electrode as a result of the dissociative adsorption of p-nitrobenzoic acid molecules from an acid solution.

Ultrafast studies of gold, nickel, and palladium nanorods

Steady state and ultrafast transient absorption studies have been carried out for gold, nickel, and palladium high aspect ratio nanorods. For each metal, nanorods were fabricated by electrochemical deposition into approximately 6 microm thick polycarbonate templates. Two nominal pore diameters(10 and 30 nm, resulting in nanorod diameters of about 40 and 60 nm, respectively) were used, yielding nanorods with high aspect ratios (>25). Static spectra of nanorods of all three metals reveal both a longitudinal surface plasmon resonance (SPR(L)) band in the mid-infrared as well as a transverse band in the visible for the gold and larger diameter nickel and palladium nanorods. The appearance of SPR(L) bands in the infrared for high aspect ratio metal nanorods and the trends in their maxima for the different aspect ratios and metals are consistent with calculations based on the Gans theory. For the gold and nickel samples, time resolved studies were performed with a subpicosecond resolution using 400 nm excitation and a wide range of probe wavelengths from the visible to the mid-IR as well as for infrared excitation (near 2000 cm(-1)) probed at 800 nm. The dynamics observed for nanorods of both metals and both diameters include transients due to electron-phonon coupling and impulsively excited coherent acoustic breathing mode oscillations, which are similar to those previously reported for spherical and smaller rod-shaped gold nanoparticles. The dynamics we observe are the same within the experimental uncertainty for 400 nm and infrared (5 microm) excitation probed at 800 nm. The transient absorption using 400 nm excitation and 800 nm probe pulses of the palladium nanorods also reveal coherent acoustic oscillations. The results demonstrate that the dynamics for high aspect ratio metal nanorods are similar to those for smaller nanoparticles.

Two-dimensional correlation analysis of polyimide films using attenuated total reflection-based dynamic compression modulation step-scan Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Attenuated total reflection (ATR)-based dynamic compression modulation two-dimensional (2D) correlation study of poly(p-phenylene biphenyltetracarboximide) film is carried out in combination with spectral simulation analysis by density functional theory (DFT). The dynamic 2D infrared (IR) correlation spectra in the region of imide I (C=O stretching mode) show three distinct correlation peaks located around 1777, 1725, and 1708 cm(-1). The band at 1708 cm(-1) is the lower wavenumber shift component of 1777 or 1735 cm(-1) peaks and is attributed to the results from intermolecular interactions, according to the DFT analysis. The 1708 cm(-1) band also shows the largest dynamic response, suggesting that these intermolecular interactions may enhance the dynamic response. The dynamic 2D IR correlation spectra in the region of imide II (C-N-C axial stretching mode) vibrations also show three correlation peaks located around 1335, 1355, and 1370 cm(-1), although the imide II band is shown to consist substantially of one component by the DFT analysis. These multiple peaks may be attributed to the compression-induced wavenumber shift of the band in the backbone structures. The sequential analysis of 2D correlation data show that, upon applying the dynamic compression, the response of the backbone regions (imide II) occurs first, followed by that of the side-chain regions (imide I, C=O).

In situ surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy for the analysis of the adsorption and desorption process of Au nanoparticles on the SiO2/Si surface

The adsorption and desorption of Au nanoparticles (AuNP) in colloidal D2O suspension on the (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane treated SiO2/Si surface was investigated by in situ attenuated total reflection surface enhanced infrared absorption (ATR-SEIRA) spectroscopy with a liquid flow cell. With increasing surface density of AuNP, the absorption of the vibrational modes of D2O and of the citrate molecules covering the AuNP increases due to SEIRA. Repulsive electrostatic Coulomb forces between the AuNP lead to the saturation of the AuNP surface density at submonolayer coverage. We show that the adsorption kinetics can be investigated by monitoring in situ the molecular vibrational modes of D2O and the citrate molecules. Furthermore, we clarify that the adsorption process can be described very well by a diffusion-limited first-order Langmuir kinetics model. When exposing a saturated AuNP submonolayer to 2-aminoethanethiol (AET)/D2O solution, the AuNP are removed from the surface and the IR absorption of the D2O vibrational modes become weaker again. Taking into account the time dependencies of the OD and the CH peaks, we propose a microscopic model where the AET molecules quickly adsorb on the AuNP by replacing most of the precovering citrate molecules exposed to the AET solution. As this takes place, the AuNP agglomerate-as we could detect with scanning electron microscopy-and are finally removed from the surface.

Biochemical applications of surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy

An overview is presented on the application of surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) spectroscopy to biochemical problems. Use of SEIRA results in high surface sensitivity by enhancing the signal of the adsorbed molecule by approximately two orders of magnitude and has the potential to enable new studies, from fundamental aspects to applied sciences. This report surveys studies of DNA and nucleic acid adsorption to gold surfaces, development of immunoassays, electron transfer between metal electrodes and proteins, and protein–protein interactions. Because signal enhancement in SEIRA uses surface properties of the nano-structured metal, the biomaterial must be tethered to the metal without hampering its functionality. Because many biochemical reactions proceed vectorially, their functionality depends on proper orientation of the biomaterial. Thus, surface-modification techniques are addressed that enable control of the proper orientation of proteins on the metal surface.

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Seeded-Growth Approach to Fabrication of Silver Nanoparticle Films on Silicon for Electrochemical ATR Surface-Enhanced IR Absorption Spectroscopy

Ag nanoparticle films (simplified as nanofilms hereafter) on Si for electrochemical ATR surface enhanced IR absorption spectroscopy (ATR-SEIRAS) have been successfully fabricated by using chemical deposition, which incorporates initial embedding of Ag seeds on the reflecting plane of an ATR Si prism and subsequent chemical plating of conductive and SEIRA-active Ag nanofilms. Two alternative methods for embedding initial Ag seeds have been developed: one is based on self-assembly of Ag colloids on an aminosilanized Si surface, whereas the other the reduction of Ag+ in a HF-containing solution. A modified silver-mirror reaction was employed for further growth of Ag seeds into Ag nanofilm electrodes with a theoretically average thickness of 40-50 nm. Both Ag seeds and as-deposited Ag nanofilms display island structure morphologies facilitating SEIRA, as revealed by AFM imaging. The cyclic voltammetric feature of the as-prepared Ag nanofilm electrodes is close to that of a polycrystalline bulk Ag electrode. With thiocyanate as a surface probe, enhancement factors of ca. 50-80 were estimated for the as-deposited Ag nanofilms as compared to a mechanically polished Ag electrode in the conventional IRAS after reasonable calibration of surface roughness factor, incident angles, surface coverage, and polarization states. As a preliminary example for extended application, the pyridine adsorption configuration at an as-deposited Ag electrode was re-examined by ATR-SEIRAS. The results revealed that pyridine molecules are bound via N end to the Ag electrode with its ring plane perpendicular or slightly tilted to the local surface without rotating its C2 axis about the surface normal, consistent with the conclusion drawn by SERS in the literature.

In-situ infrared study of the adsorption and oxidation of oxalic acid at single-crystal and thin-film gold electrodes: a combined external reflection infrared and ATR-SEIRAS approach

The adsorption and oxidation of oxalic acid at gold electrodes were studied by in-situ infrared spectroscopy. External reflection experiments carried out with gold single-crystal electrodes were combined with internal reflection (ATR-SEIRAS) experiments with gold thin-film electrodes. These gold thin films, with a typical thickness of ca. 35 nm, were deposited on silicon substrates by argon sputtering. As previously reported for evaporated gold films, the voltammetric curves obtained in sulfuric acid solutions after electrochemical annealing show typical features related to the presence of wide bidimensional (111) domains with long-range order. The in-situ infrared data collected for solutions of pH 1 confirmed the potential-dependent adsorption of either oxalate (Au(100)) or a mixture of bioxalate and oxalate (Au(111), Au(110), and gold thin films) anions in a bidentate configuration. The better signal-to-noise ratio associated with the SEIRA effect in the case of the gold thin-film electrodes allows the observation of the carbonyl band for adsorbed bioxalate that was not detected in the external reflection experiments. Besides, additional bands are observed between 2000 and 3000 cm(-)(1) that can be tentatively related to the formation of hydrogen bonds between neighboring bioxalate anions. The intensities of these bands decrease with increasing solution pH values, disappearing for pH 3 solutions in which adsorbed oxalate anions are the predominant species. The analysis of the intensities of the nu(s)(O-C-O) and nu(C-OH) + delta(C-O-H) bands for adsorbed oxalate and bioxalate, respectively, suggests that the pK(a) for the surface equilibrium between these species is significantly lower than that for the solution equilibrium.

Aligned silver nanorod arrays as substrates for surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy

Preferentially aligned silver nanorod arrays prepared by oblique angle vapor deposition were evaluated as substrates for surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) spectroscopy. These nanorod arrays have an irregular surface lattice and are composed of tilted, cylindrically shaped nanorods that have an average length of 868 nm +/- 95 nm and an average diameter of 99 nm +/- 29 nm. The overall enhancement factor for chemisorbed organic films of para-nitrobenzoic acid (PNBA) deposited onto the Ag nanorod arrays analyzed by external reflection SEIRA was calculated to be 31 +/- 9 compared to infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) obtained from a 500 nm Ag film substrate. This enhancement is attributed to the unique optical properties of the nanorod arrays as well as the increased surface area provided by the nanorod substrate. SEIRA reflection-absorbance intensity was observed with both p- and s-polarized incident radiation with angles of incidence ranging from 25 degrees to 80 degrees . The largest intensity was achieved with p-polarization and incident angles larger than 75 degrees . Polarization-dependent ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV/Vis/NIR) spectra of the nanorod arrays demonstrate that the red-shifted surface plasmon peaks of the elongated nanorods may be partially responsible for the observed SEIRA response. The SEIRA detection limit for the Ag nanorod arrays was estimated to be 0.08 ng/cm(2). Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and SEIRA analysis of chemisorbed PNBA utilizing the same nanorod substrate is demonstrated.

Infrared spectroscopic mapping of single nanoparticles and viruses at nanoscale resolution

We demonstrate that scattering near-field microscopy (s-SNOM) can determine infrared "fingerprint" spectra of individual poly(methyl methacrylate) nanobeads and viruses as small as 18 nm. Amplitude and phase spectra are found surprisingly strong, even at a probed volume of only 10(-20) l, and robust in regard to particle size and substrate. This makes infrared spectroscopic s-SNOM a versatile tool for chemical and-in the case of protein-secondary-structure identification.

Instrumental analysis of bacterial cells using vibrational and emission Mössbauer spectroscopic techniques

In biosciences and biotechnology, the expanding application of physicochemical approaches using modern instrumental techniques is an efficient strategy to obtain valuable and often unique information at the molecular level. In this work, we applied a combination of vibrational (Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), FT-Raman) spectroscopic techniques, useful in overall structural and compositional analysis of bacterial cells of the rhizobacterium Azospirillum brasilense, with 57Co emission Mössbauer spectroscopy (EMS) used for sensitive monitoring of metal binding and further transformations in live bacterial cells. The information obtained, together with ICP-MS analyses for metals taken up by the bacteria, is useful in analysing the impact of the environmental conditions (heavy metal stress) on the bacterial metabolism and some differences in the heavy metal stress-induced behaviour of non-endophytic (Sp7) and facultatively endophytic (Sp245) strains. The results show that, while both strains Sp7 and Sp245 take up noticeable and comparable amounts of heavy metals from the medium (0.12 and 0.13 mg Co, 0.48 and 0.44 mg Cu or 4.2 and 2.1 mg Zn per gram of dry biomass, respectively, at a metal concentration of 0.2 mM in the medium), their metabolic responses differ essentially. Whereas for strain Sp7 the FTIR measurements showed significant accumulation of polyhydroxyalkanoates as storage materials involved in stress endurance, strain Sp245 did not show any major changes in cellular composition. Nevertheless, EMS measurements showed rapid binding of cobalt(II) by live bacterial cells (chemically similar to metal binding by dead bacteria) and its further transformation in the live cells within an hour.

Two-dimensional correlation study of uniaxially drawn poly(ethylene terephthalate) films by using attenuated total reflection based dynamic compression modulation step-scan fourier transform infrared in combination with spectral simulation analysis by density functional theory

Attenuated total reflection (ATR) based dynamic compression modulation two-dimensional (2D) correlation studies of uniaxially drawn poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) films have been performed in combination with spectral simulation analysis by density functional theory (DFT). The dynamic 2D infrared (IR) correlation spectra in the region of the CCO stretching mode vibrations show four distinct correlation peaks located around 1290, 1265, 1248, and 1234 cm(-1). These bands can be clearly assigned to the combination bands or coupling modes of the CH in-plane bend of the benzene ring or the CH(2) deformation of the ethylene glycol unit, as well as CCO stretching vibrations, which are gauche conformer's characteristic bands, by DFT analysis. The sequential analysis of 2D correlation data shows that, upon applying the dynamic compression, the response of the side chain regions (ester groups) occurs first, followed by that of the backbone regions (benzene rings). The ATR based dynamic compression modulation 2D correlation spectroscopy in combination with DFT analysis can be a powerful tool for various polymer characterizations.

Inherent Complexities of Trace Detection by Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERRS) are powerful optical scattering techniques used in such frontier areas of research as ultrasensitive chemical analysis, the characterization of nanostructures, and the detection of single molecules. However, measuring and, most importantly, interpreting SERS/SERRS spectra can be incredibly challenging. This is the result of modifications to the measured spectra that are due to of a variety of instabilities and contributions. These interferences and modifications arise from the nature of the enhancement itself, as well as the conditions used to attain SERS spectra. The present report is an attempt to collect in one place the analytical interferences that are most commonly found during the collection of SERS/SERRS spectra.

Surface enhanced vibrational (IR and Raman) spectroscopy in the design of chemosensors based on ester functionalized p-tert-butylcalix[4]arene hosts

Surface-enhanced IR (SEIR) and Raman scattering (SERS) have been employed to study the adsorption of ester functionalized tert-butyl calix[4]arenes on Ag and Au nanostructured surfaces as well as their complexes with pyrene. The influence of adsorption and complexation with pyrene on the host calixarene structure was tested for two different calixarene molecules bearing carboethoxy groups (CH(3)CH(2)COOCH(2)-) in the low rim at positions 1,3- and 1,2,3,4-. The results obtained with SEIR were compared to those obtained with SERS, to better understand the interaction mechanism of the studied calixarenes with the metallic surfaces and the ligand as well as to investigate the structure/selectivity relationship of these two surface techniques in the analysis of recognition problems in which these ester functionalized calixarene molecules are involved.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering on colloidal nanostructures

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering combines extremely high sensitivity, due to enhanced Raman cross-sections comparable or even better than fluorescence, with the observation of vibrational spectra of adsorbed species, providing one of the most incisive analytical methods for chemical and biochemical detection and analysis. SERS spectra are observed from a molecule-nanostructure enhancing system. This symbiosis molecule-nanostructure is a fertile ground for theoretical developments and a realm of applications from single molecule detection to biomedical diagnostic and techniques for nanostructure characterization.

Enhanced Fluorescence from Arrays of Nanoholes in a Gold Film

Arrays of sub-wavelength holes (nanoholes) in gold films were used as a substrate for enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy. Seven arrays of nanoholes with distinct periodicities (distances between the holes) were fabricated. The arrays were then spin-coated with polystyrene films containing different concentrations of the fluorescent dye oxazine 720. The dye was excited via resonant extraordinary transmission of the laser source through the nanoholes. Enhanced fluorescence was observed when the geometric characteristics of the arrays allowed for an enhancement in the transmitted excitation. This enhancement occurred via surface plasmon excitation by the laser and a consequential increase in the local electromagnetic field in a sub-wavelength region at the metal-film interface. It was demonstrated that the sensitivity of the fluorescence measurement (change in signal vs change in dye concentration in the polymer film) is significantly larger at the surface plasmon resonance conditions than that obtained from equivalent films on glass substrates. Enhancement factors for the fluorescence emission were calculated for each array, with a maximum enhancement of close to 2 orders of magnitude as compared to the emission of films on glass. The results presented here indicate that arrays of nanoholes are interesting substrates for the development of fluorescence sensors based on surface plasmon resonance, as they provide a platform that allows both spatial confinement and enhancement of excitation light. Moreover, the collinear characteristics of the present optical setup, due to the resonant extraordinary transmission through the nanohole arrays, are more conducive to miniaturization and chip integration than more traditional experimental geometries.

ATR-SEIRAS study of the adsorption of acetate anions at chemically deposited silver thin film electrodes

The adsorption of acetate anions at silver thin film electrodes has been studied by in-situ infrared spectroscopy experiments with a Kretschmann internal reflection configuration. Stable silver thin films were chemically deposited on germanium substrates. Ex-situ STM images show mean grain sizes ranging from ca. 20 to 90 nm for deposition times between 2 and 20 min, respectively. The thickness of the silver film, measured by AFM, is typically around 10 nm for a deposition time of 10 min and increases up to 50 nm for a deposition time of 20 min. Roughness factors around 2.3 have been obtained for the silver films from the charge involved in lead underpotential deposition (UPD). A noticeable enhancement of the infrared absorption of adsorbed species (SEIRA effect) is observed when the silver films are used as electrodes under internal total reflection conditions. Maximum intensities of the adsorbate bands were observed for a deposition time of 10 min and an angle of incidence around 65 degrees . The potential-dependent infrared spectra of acetate and interfacial water are consistent with previously proposed models involving the existence of weakly hydrogen-bonded water molecules at potentials below the potential of zero charge and the reorientation of water molecules at potentials above the potential of zero charge. Results reported in this work suggest a weak interaction between acetate and water molecules adsorbed at the silver thin film electrodes.

Reduction of Detection Limits of the Direct Deposition GC/FT-IR Interface by Surface-Enhanced Infrared Absorption

Even though the interface of gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS) is by far the most popular way of identifying molecules eluting from a GC in real time, the identification of compositional isomers by MS is equivocal at best. Much better results would be found by infrared spectrometry (IR) if the sensitivity of the GC/IR interface could be improved. In this paper, we show how the smallest quantity of molecules injected into a GC for which an identifiable infrared spectrum can be measured on-line has been reduced by a factor of 10 below the detection limit of the most sensitive current technique. A commercial direct deposition interface between a GC and a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer was modified by vapor-depositing an island film of silver on the surface of the zinc selenide substrate. Band intensities in the spectra of molecules located within approximately 4 nm of the surface of the silver islands were increased by at least 1 order of magnitude through surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA). The effectiveness of this approach was illustrated by comparing the limits of identification of butylbenzene isomers measured with and without the silver film. Comparison with the spectra of the same molecules measured by mass spectrometry showed the increased sensitivity and specificity of the GC/SEIRA interface.

Redox and redox-coupled processes of heme proteins and enzymes at electrochemical interfaces

Modern bioelectrochemical methods rely upon the immobilisation of redox proteins and enzymes on electrodes coated with biocompatible materials to prevent denaturation. However, even when protein denaturation is effectively avoided, heterogeneous protein electron transfer is often coupled to non-Faradaic processes like reorientation, conformational transitions or acid-base equilibria. Disentangling these processes requires methods capable of probing simultaneously the structure and reaction dynamics of the adsorbed species. Here we provide an overview of the recent developments in Raman and infrared surface-enhanced spectroelectrochemical techniques applied to the study of soluble and membrane bound redox heme proteins and enzymes. Possible biological implications of the findings are critically discussed.