101
|
Samoylovich MP, Pinevich AA, Shashkova OA, Vartanian NL, Kiseleva LN, Klimovich VB. The influence of mesenchymal stromal cells on B-cell line growth and immunoglobulin synthesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990519x13030103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
|
102
|
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Stroke is a major cause of mortality and disability in adults worldwide. Unfortunately, current therapy which targets vessel recanalization has a narrow treatment window, and at this time neuroprotective approaches are not effective for stroke treatment. However, after stroke the parenchymal and endothelial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) respond in concert to ischemic stressors and create a microenvironment in which successful recovery may ensue. Neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, axonal sprouting, glial cell activation, angiogenesis and vascular remodeling within the brain and the spinal cord are stimulated post stroke. Cell based-therapy amplifies these endogenous restorative effects within the CNS to promote functional outcome. AREAS COVERED This article reviews current knowledge of cell-based therapy in the adult brain after stroke, including transplanted cell type, benefits and risks, with an emphasis on mechanisms of action. EXPERT OPINION Experimental studies and clinical trials with cell-based therapy in stroke appear promising. Cell-based therapy is not intended for the replacement of damaged cells, but for the remodeling of the CNS by promoting neuroplasticity, angiogenesis and immunomodulation. However, there are risks associated with the use of cell-based therapy, and adequate evaluation of these potential risks is a prerequisite before clinical application for stroke patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Education & Research Building, #3056, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
103
|
Asumda FZ. Age-associated changes in the ecological niche: implications for mesenchymal stem cell aging. Stem Cell Res Ther 2013; 4:47. [PMID: 23673056 PMCID: PMC3706986 DOI: 10.1186/scrt197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult stem cells are critical for organ-specific regeneration and self-renewal with advancing age. The prospect of being able to reverse tissue-specific post-injury sequelae by harvesting, culturing and transplanting a patient's own stem and progenitor cells is exciting. Mesenchymal stem cells have emerged as a reliable stem cell source for this treatment modality and are currently being tested in numerous ongoing clinical trials. Unfortunately, the fervor over mesenchymal stem cells is mitigated by several lines of evidence suggesting that their efficacy is limited by natural aging. This article discusses the mechanisms and manifestations of age-associated deficiencies in mesenchymal stem cell efficacy. A consideration of recent experimental findings suggests that the ecological niche might be responsible for mesenchymal stem cell aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Faizal Z Asumda
- Saint James School of Medicine, 1480 Renaissance Drive, Park Ridge, Chicago, IL, 60068, USA
| |
Collapse
|
104
|
Falavigna A, da Costa JC. Mesenchymal autologous stem cells. World Neurosurg 2013; 83:236-50. [PMID: 23402865 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2013.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The use of cell-based therapies for spinal cord injuries has recently gained prominence as a potential therapy or component of a combination strategy. Experimental and clinical studies have been performed using mesenchymal stem cell therapy to treat spinal cord injuries with encouraging results. However, there have been reports on the adverse effects of these stem cell-based therapies, especially in the context of tumor modulation. This article surveys the literature relevant to the potential of mesenchymal autologous stem cells for spinal cord injuries and their clinical implications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asdrubal Falavigna
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical School of the University of Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Jaderson Costa da Costa
- Neurology Service and Instituto do Cérebro, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
105
|
van Buul GM, van Osch GJVM. Musculoskeletal Stem Cells. Regen Med 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-5690-8_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
|
106
|
Wu KH, Wu HP, Chan CK, Hwang SM, Peng CT, Chao YH. The role of mesenchymal stem cells in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: from bench to bedsides. Cell Transplant 2012; 22:723-9. [PMID: 23068433 DOI: 10.3727/096368912x655217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to be effective in the management of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) due to their immunomodulatory effects. In addition to prevention and treatment of GVHD, many studies have demonstrated that MSCs can promote hematopoietic engraftment, accelerate lymphocyte recovery, reduce the risk of graft failure, and repair tissue damage in patients receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Bone marrow (BM) has been considered as the traditional source of MSCs, and most of the knowledge concerning MSCs comes from BM studies. However, BM-derived MSCs have several limitations for their clinical application. Fetal-type MSCs can be isolated easier and proliferate faster in vitro as well as possessing a lower immunogenicity. Therefore, fetal-type MSCs, such as umbilical cord-derived MSCs, represent an excellent alternative source of MSCs. MSCs play multiple important roles in HSCT. Nevertheless, several issues regarding their clinical application remain to be discussed, including the safety of use in humans, the available sources and the convenience of obtaining MSCs, the quality control of in vitro-cultured MSCs and the appropriate cell passages, the optimum cell dose, and the optimum number of infusions. Furthermore, it is important to evaluate whether the rates of cancer relapse and infections increase when using MSCs for GVHD. There are still many questions regarding the clinical application of MSCs to HSCT that need to be answered, and further studies are warranted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Hsi Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
107
|
Long-term outcome of the repair of 50 mm long median nerve defects in rhesus monkeys with marrow mesenchymal stem cells-containing, chitosan-based tissue engineered nerve grafts. Biomaterials 2012; 34:100-11. [PMID: 23063298 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Despite great progress in the fields of tissue engineering and stem cell therapy, the translational and preclinical studies are required to accelerate the clinical application of tissue engineered nerve grafts, as an alternative to autologous nerve grafts, for peripheral nerve repair. Rhesus monkeys (non-human primates) are more clinically relevant and more suitable for scaling up to humans as compared to other mammalians. Based on this premise, and considering a striking similarity in the anatomy and function between human and monkey hands, here we used chitosan/PLGA-based, autologous marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-containing tissue engineered nerve grafts (TENGs) for bridging a 50-mm long median nerve defect in rhesus monkeys. At 12 months after grafting, locomotive activity observation, electrophysiological assessments, and FG retrograde tracing tests indicated that the recovery of nerve function by TENGs was more efficient than that by chitosan/PLGA scaffolds alone; histological and morphometric analyses of regenerated nerves further confirmed that the morphological reconstruction by TENGs was close to that by autografts and superior to that by chitosan/PLGA scaffolds alone. In addition, blood test and histopathological examination demonstrated that TENGs featured by addition of autologous MSCs could be safely used in the primate body. These findings suggest the efficacy of our developed TENGs for peripheral nerve regeneration and their promising perspective for clinical applications.
Collapse
|
108
|
Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2012:759503. [PMID: 23093863 PMCID: PMC3471031 DOI: 10.1155/2012/759503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is becoming an effective therapeutic modality for a variety of diseases. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can be used to enhance hematopoietic engraftment, accelerate lymphocyte recovery, reduce the risk of graft failure, prevent and treat graft-versus-host disease, and repair tissue damage in patients receiving HSCT. Till now, most MSCs for human clinical application have been derived from bone marrow. However, acquiring bone-marrow-derived MSCs involves an invasive procedure. Umbilical cord is rich with MSCs. Compared to bone-marrow-derived MSCs, umbilical cord-derived MSCs (UCMSCs) are easier to obtain without harm to the donor and can proliferate faster. No severe adverse effects were noted in our previous clinical application of UCMSCs in HSCT. Accordingly, application of UCMSCs in humans appears to be feasible and safe. Further studies are warranted.
Collapse
|
109
|
Berdasco M, Melguizo C, Prados J, Gómez A, Alaminos M, Pujana MA, Lopez M, Setien F, Ortiz R, Zafra I, Aranega A, Esteller M. DNA methylation plasticity of human adipose-derived stem cells in lineage commitment. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 181:2079-93. [PMID: 23031258 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 08/17/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Adult stem cells have an enormous potential for clinical use in regenerative medicine that avoids many of the drawbacks characteristic of embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells. In this context, easily obtainable human adipose-derived stem cells offer an interesting option for future strategies in regenerative medicine. However, little is known about their repertoire of differentiation capacities, how closely they resemble the target primary tissues, and the potential safety issues associated with their use. DNA methylation is one of the most widely recognized epigenetic factors involved in cellular identity, prompting us to consider how the analyses of 27,578 CpG sites in the genome of these cells under different conditions reflect their different natural history. We show that human adipose-derived stem cells generate myogenic and osteogenic lineages that share much of the DNA methylation landscape characteristic of primary myocytes and osteocytes. Most important, adult stem cells and in vitro-generated myocytes and osteocytes display a significantly different DNA methylome from that observed in transformed cells from these tissue types, such as rhabdomyosarcoma and osteosarcoma. These results suggest that the plasticity of the DNA methylation patterns plays an important role in lineage commitment of adult stem cells and that it could be used for clinical purposes as a biomarker of efficient and safely differentiated cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Berdasco
- Cancer Epigenetics Group, Cancer Epigenetics and Biology Program, Bellvitge Biomedical Biomedical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
110
|
MSC and Tumors: Homing, Differentiation, and Secretion Influence Therapeutic Potential. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2012; 130:209-66. [PMID: 22990585 DOI: 10.1007/10_2012_150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
: Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSC) are adult multipotent progenitors with fibroblast-like morphology able to differentiate into adipocytic, osteogenic, chondrogenic, and myogenic lineages. Due to these properties, MSC have been studied and introduced as therapeutics in regenerative medicine. Preliminary studies have also shown a possible involvement of MSC as precursors of cellular elements within tumor microenvironments, in particular tumor-associated fibroblasts (TAF). Among a number of different possible origins, TAF may originate from a pool of circulating progenitors from bone marrow or adipose tissue-derived MSC. There is growing evidence to corroborate that cells immunophenotypically defined as MSC are able to reside as TAF influencing the tumor microenvironment in a potentially bi-phasic and obscure manner: either promoting or inhibiting growth depending on tumor context and MSC sources. Here we focus on relationships between the tumor microenvironment, cancer cells, and MSC, analyzing their diverse ability to influence neoplastic development. Associated activities include MSC homing driven by the secretion of various mediators, differentiation towards TAF phenotypes, and reciprocal interactions with the tumor cells. These are reviewed here with the aim of understanding the biological functions of MSC that can be exploited for innovative cancer therapy.
Collapse
|
111
|
IFN-γ-primed human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells induce tumor cell apoptosis in vitro via tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 44:1305-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2012.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2012] [Revised: 04/14/2012] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
112
|
Human umbilical cord blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hUCB-MSC) inhibit the proliferation of K562 (human erythromyeloblastoid leukaemic cell line). Cell Biol Int 2012; 36:793-801. [DOI: 10.1042/cbi20110595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
113
|
Botchkina G. Colon cancer stem cells--from basic to clinical application. Cancer Lett 2012; 338:127-40. [PMID: 22537805 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2012.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Based on cancer stem cell (CSC) concept of carcinogenesis, tumors represent complex heterogeneous organ-like systems with a hierarchical cellular organization, and only minority phenotypic subpopulations with stem-like properties possess a dual ability to self-renew indefinitely and produce all the heterogeneous cell phenotypes comprising the bulk tumor cells. Large experimental and clinical data indicate that conventional anti-cancer therapies cannot eradicate CSCs, and moreover, they usually increase their number leading to cancer recurrence and further drug resistance. In this review, several current controversies in the CSC field and recent studies, which help to shed light on their origin, are discussed. The emerging necessity for the development of complex, multimodal CSC-targeted treatment strategies, which combine conventional therapeutics with promising pathway-specific modulators, and natural compounds, which can improve the efficacy of conventional anti-cancer therapeutics and decrease their undesirable side effects is presented. Also, novel requirements and criteria necessary for evaluation of the CSC-targeted drug efficacy and relevant experimental models are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Galina Botchkina
- Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University Medical Center, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3400, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
114
|
Hyun YY, Kim IO, Kim MH, Nam DH, Lee MH, Kim JE, Song HK, Cha JJ, Kang YS, Lee JE, Kim HW, Han JY, Cha DR. Adipose-derived stem cells improve renal function in a mouse model of IgA nephropathy. Cell Transplant 2012; 21:2425-39. [PMID: 22525004 DOI: 10.3727/096368912x639008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
T-cell dysregulation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN). Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) have been reported to be able to prevent tissue damage through immune-modulating effects. To evaluate the effects of ASCs in high IgA ddY (HIGA) mice, ASCs were isolated from HIGA mice with different stages of IgAN before and after disease onset. ASCs were injected at a dose of 5×10(6) cells/kg body weight through the tail vein every 2 weeks for 3 months. Although the administered ASCs were rarely detected in the glomeruli, 24-h proteinuria was markedly decreased in all ASC-treated groups. Although glomerular deposition of IgA was not significantly different among groups, mesangial proliferation and glomerulosclerosis were dramatically decreased in most ASC treatment groups. In addition, levels of fibrotic and inflammatory molecules were markedly decreased by ASC treatment. Interestingly, ASC therapy significantly decreased Th1 cytokine activity in the kidney and caused a shift to Th2 responses in spleen T-cells as determined by FACS analysis. Furthermore, conditioned media from ASCs abrogated aggregated IgA-induced Th1 cytokine production in cultured HIGA mesangial cells. These results suggest that the beneficial effects of ASC treatment in IgAN occur via paracrine mechanisms that modulate the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance. ASCs are therefore a promising new therapeutic agent for the treatment of IgAN.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Young Youl Hyun
- Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University Ansan Hospital, Ansan, South Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
115
|
Le PAIR-gynécologie : recherche multi/interdisciplinaire en cancérologie gynécologique. Les problèmes à résoudre en 2012. Bull Cancer 2012; 99:479-98. [DOI: 10.1684/bdc.2012.1558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
|
116
|
Maeda M, Takami T, Terai S, Sakaida I. Autologous bone marrow cell infusions suppress tumor initiation in hepatocarcinogenic mice with liver cirrhosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 27 Suppl 2:104-11. [PMID: 22320927 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.2011.07016.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported the efficacy and safety of autologous bone marrow cell infusion (ABMi) therapy for liver cirrhosis patients without hepatocellular carcinoma in a multicenter clinical trial. However, since liver cirrhosis is highly oncogenic, evaluation of the effects of ABMi on the mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis is of great importance. Therefore, frequent ABMi was performed in hepatocarcinogenic mice, and its effects on hepatocarcinogenesis were analyzed. The N-nitrosodiethylamine (DEN)/green fluorescent protein (GFP)-carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4) ) model was developed by administering DEN once, followed by repeated administration of CCl(4) intraperitoneally as for the control group. In the administration (ABMi) group, GFP-positive bone marrow cells were infused through a tail vein. The kinetics of hepatocarcinogenesis were evaluated histologically 4.5 months after DEN treatment. At 4.5 months, there was significantly lower incidence of foci and tumors in the ABMi group, and they were smaller in number, while their size was almost equal. No GFP-positive tumors were found in ABMi livers. Moreover, ABMi livers showed significantly reduced liver fibrosis, consistent with significantly lower 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine levels, higher superoxide dismutase activity, and increased nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2. These results demonstrate that frequent ABMi might contribute to suppressed tumor initiation during stages of hepatocarcinogenesis, consistent with improvements in liver fibrosis and stabilization of redox homeostasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Maeda
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
117
|
Zerumbone inhibits interleukin-6 and induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in ovarian and cervical cancer cells. Int Immunopharmacol 2012; 12:594-602. [PMID: 22330084 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-6 is one of the factors affecting sensitivity to cytotoxic agents. Therefore, the current study was designed to investigate the role of IL-6 and IL6 receptors in the cytotoxic effects of zerumbone in ovarian and cervical cancer cell lines (Caov-3 and HeLa, respectively). Exposure of both cancer cells to zerumbone or cisplatin demonstrated growth inhibition at a dose-dependent manner as determined by the MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,Sdiphenyltetrazolium bromide) reduction assay. Both laser scanning confocal microscopy and TUNEL assay showed typical apoptotic features in treated cells. The studies conducted seems to suggest that zerumbone induces cell death by stimulating apoptosis better than cisplatin, based on the significantly higher percentage of apoptotic cells in zerumbone's treated cancer cells as compared to cisplatin. In addition, zerumbone and cisplatin arrest cancer cells at G2/M phase as analyzed by flow cytometry. Our results indicated that zerumbone significantly decreased the levels of IL-6 secreted by both cancer cells. In contrast, HeLa and Caov-3 cells were still sensitive to cisplatin and zerumbone, even in the presence of exogenous IL-6. However, membrane-bound IL-6 receptor is still intact after zerumbone treatment as demonstrated using an immune-fluorescence technique. This study concludes that the compound, zerumbone inhibits both cancer cell growth through the induction of apoptosis, arrests cell cycle at G2/M phase and inhibits the secretion levels of IL-6 in both cancer cells. Therefore, zerumbone is a potential candidate as a useful chemotherapeutic agent in treating both cervical and ovarian cancers in future.
Collapse
|
118
|
Rodríguez R, García-Castro J, Trigueros C, García Arranz M, Menéndez P. Multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells: clinical applications and cancer modeling. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 741:187-205. [PMID: 22457111 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-2098-9_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The recognition of the therapeutic potential of Multipotent Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSCs) is one of the most exciting recent advances in cell therapy. In just ten years, since the description of the multilineage potential of MSCs by Pittenger et al in 1999 until now, MSCs are being used in more than 150 clinical trials as therapeutic agents. The potential of these cells for cell-based therapies relies on several key properties: (1) their capacity to differentiate into several cell lineages; (2) their lack of immunogenicity and their immunomodulatory properties; (3) their ex vivo expansion potential; (4) their ability to secrete soluble factors which regulate crucial biological functions such as proliferation and differentiation over a broad spectrum of target cells; and (5) their ability to home to damaged tissues and tumor sites. Based on these properties MSCs are being exploited worldwide for a wide range of potential clinical applications including cell replacement strategies, treatment of graft-versus-host disease, autoimmune diseases and rejection after solid organ transplantation as well as their use as vehicles to deliver anti-cancer therapies. Importantly, the low inherent immunogenicity of MSCs means that they could be used not only for autologous but also for allogeneic cell therapies. In addition, increasing evidence has revealed a complex relationship between MSCs and cancer. Thus, solid evidence has placed MSCs transformed with specific mutations as the most likely cell of origin for certain sarcomas, and MSCs have been reported to both, inhibit or promote tumor growth depending on yet undefined conditions. Here we will thoroughly discuss the different potential clinical applications of MSC as well as the role of MSCs on sarcomagenesis and the control of tumor growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- René Rodríguez
- Andalusian Stem Cell Bank, Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Consejería de Salud-Universidad de Granada, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
119
|
Kinzebach S, Bieback K. Expansion of Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal cells under xenogenic-free culture conditions. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2012; 129:33-57. [PMID: 22777242 DOI: 10.1007/10_2012_134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal cells (MSCs) are increasingly applied in cell-based regenerative medicine. To yield clinically relevant cell doses, ex vivo expansion of MSCs is required to be compliant with good manufacturing practice (GMP) guidelines. A lack of standardization and harmonization seems to hamper rapid progress in the translational phase. Most protocols still use fetal bovine serum (FBS) to expand MSCs. However, the high lot-to-lot variability, risk of contamination and immunization call for xenogenic-free culture conditions. Chemically defined media are the ultimate achievement in terms of standardization. These media, however, need to maintain all key cellular and therapy-relevant features of MSCs. Because of the numerous constituents of FBS, the development of such chemically defined media with an optimal composition of the few essential factors is only beginning. Meanwhile, various human blood-derived components are under investigation, including human plasma, human serum, human umbilical cord blood serum and human platelet derivatives such as platelet lysate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sven Kinzebach
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, German Red Cross Blood Service Baden-Württemberg-Hessen, Friedrich-Ebert-Str. 107, 68167 Mannheim, Germany,
| | | |
Collapse
|
120
|
Aldahmash A, Zaher W, Al-Nbaheen M, Kassem M. Human stromal (mesenchymal) stem cells: basic biology and current clinical use for tissue regeneration. Ann Saudi Med 2012; 32:68-77. [PMID: 22156642 PMCID: PMC6087654 DOI: 10.5144/0256-4947.2012.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human stromal (mesenchymal) stem cells (hMSC) represent a group of non-hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone marrow stroma and the stroma of other organs including subcutaneous adipose tissue, placenta, and muscles. They exhibit the characteristics of somatic stem cells of self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation into mesoderm-type of cells, e.g., to osteoblasts, adipocytes, chondrocytes and possibly other cell types including hepatocytes and astrocytes. Due to their ease of culture and multipotentiality, hMSC are increasingly employed as a source for cells suitable for a number of clinical applications, e.g., non-healing bone fractures and defects and also non-skeletal degenerative diseases like heart failure. Currently, the numbers of clinical trials that employ MSC are increasing. However, several biological and biotechnological challenges need to be overcome to benefit from the full potential of hMSC. In this current review, we present some of the most important and recent advances in understanding of the biology of hMSC and their current and potential use in therapy.
Collapse
|
121
|
Kolonin MG, Evans KW, Mani SA, Gomer RH. Alternative origins of stroma in normal organs and disease. Stem Cell Res 2011; 8:312-23. [PMID: 22209011 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2011.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Revised: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 11/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Stromal fibroblasts are a new prospective drug target. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) and monocyte-derived stromal cells, also known as fibrocytes, are distinct fibroblastic populations derived from separate lineages. Mesenchymal and myeloid fibroblast progenitors are multipotent, serve as progenitor cells in animal models, and are implicated in several diseases. In addition, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been established as a mechanism for generation of stromal cells. Organ sources, relative contributions, and functions of these populations in normal development and pathology are not well understood. Innovative approaches are needed to identify markers that can distinguish these stromal populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail G Kolonin
- The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, 1825 Pressler st., Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
122
|
Pontikoglou C, Deschaseaux F, Sensebé L, Papadaki HA. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells: biological properties and their role in hematopoiesis and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2011; 7:569-89. [PMID: 21249477 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-011-9228-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent adult stem cells that are present in practically all tissues as a specialized population of mural cells/pericytes that lie on the abluminal side of blood vessels. Originally identified within the bone marrow (BM) stroma, not only do they provide microenvironmental support for hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), but can also differentiate into various mesodermal lineages. MSCs can easily be isolated from the BM and subsequently expand in vitro and in addition they exhibit intriguing immunomodulatory properties, thereby emerging as attractive candidates for various therapeutic applications. This review addresses the concept of BM MSCs via a hematologist's point of view. In this context it discusses the stem cell properties that have been attributed to BM MSCs, as compared to those of the prototypic hematopoietic stem cell model and then gives a brief overview of the in vitro and vivo features of the former, emphasizing on their immunoregulatory properties and their hematopoiesis-supporting role. In addition, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of BM MSCs within the context of a defective microenvironment, such as the one characterizing Myelodysplastic Syndromes are described and the potential involvement of these cells in the pathophysiology of the disease is discussed. Finally, emerging clinical applications of BM MSCs in the field of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation are reviewed and potential hazards from MSC use are outlined.
Collapse
|
123
|
Focal adhesion protein abnormalities in myelodysplastic mesenchymal stromal cells. Exp Cell Res 2011; 317:2616-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2011.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2011] [Revised: 08/07/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
124
|
Hu J, Xuan X, Han C, Hao L, Zhang P, Chen M, He H, Fan T, Dong B. Anti-tumor function of double-promoter regulated adenovirus carrying SEA gene, in the treatment of bladder cancer. Cell Biochem Biophys 2011; 62:353-9. [PMID: 22002027 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-011-9289-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
To construct an adenovirus carrying SEA gene and regulated by telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) promoters and investigate its anti-tumor function in vitro, as well as its role in lymphocyte production. hTERT and HIF genes were cloned into adenovirus E1A and E1B shuttle plasmids. The control vector for SEA gene expression is under the regulation of CMV and SV40 promoters. Double regulation was obtained through homologous recombination. The positive clones of replicable adenovirus H2-SEA-Ad were selected by plaque assay. The adenovirus was purified, titrated, and DNA was verified by PCR. The obtained virus was used to infect EJ bladder tumor cells and the SEA Mrna, and protein expression was measured by RT-PCR, western blot, and immunofluorescence microscopy, respectively. Co-culture of lymphocytes and tumor cells was observed dynamically under microscope. The construction of shuttle plasmid p315-CSS-SEA was confirmed by PCR and DNA sequencing. Insertion of superantigen SEA gene in adenovirus (H2-SEA-Ad.SEA) was obtained by homologous recombination. In lymphocytes and tumor cell co-culture, the number of viable tumor cells in test groups was significantly lower than that in control group after 12, 24, and 48 h of treatment. Production of interleukin-2, interleukin-4, and tumor necrosis factor were higher in test groups than in control group. Expression of SEA gene in bladder tumor cells by adenoviral vector caused reduced tumor cell proliferation, as well as stimulation of inflammatory cytokine productions in co-cultures with lymphocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianpeng Hu
- Department of Urology, People's Hospital Affiliated to Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212002, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
125
|
Rodriguez R, Rubio R, Menendez P. Modeling sarcomagenesis using multipotent mesenchymal stem cells. Cell Res 2011; 22:62-77. [PMID: 21931359 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2011.157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Because of their unique properties, multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent one of the most promising adult stem cells being used worldwide in a wide array of clinical applications. Overall, compelling evidence supports the long-term safety of ex vivo expanded human MSCs, which do not seem to transform spontaneously. However, experimental data reveal a link between MSCs and cancer, and MSCs have been reported to inhibit or promote tumor growth depending on yet undefined conditions. Interestingly, solid evidence based on transgenic mice and genetic intervention of MSCs has placed these cells as the most likely cell of origin for certain sarcomas. This research area is being increasingly explored to develop accurate MSC-based models of sarcomagenesis, which will be undoubtedly valuable in providing a better understanding about the etiology and pathogenesis of mesenchymal cancer, eventually leading to the development of more specific therapies directed against the sarcoma-initiating cell. Unfortunately, still little is known about the mechanisms underlying MSC transformation and further studies are required to develop bona fide sarcoma models based on human MSCs. Here, we comprehensively review the existing MSC-based models of sarcoma and discuss the most common mechanisms leading to tumoral transformation of MSCs and sarcomagenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rene Rodriguez
- Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Government Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research (GENyO), Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Granada, Spain.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
126
|
Mercapide J, Rappa G, Lorico A. The intrinsic fusogenicity of glioma cells as a factor of transformation and progression in the tumor microenvironment. Int J Cancer 2011; 131:334-43. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.26361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
127
|
Mesenchymal stem cells: angels or demons? J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:459510. [PMID: 21822372 PMCID: PMC3142786 DOI: 10.1155/2011/459510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2011] [Revised: 06/01/2011] [Accepted: 06/01/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been used in cell-based therapy in various disease conditions such as graft-versus-host and heart diseases, osteogenesis imperfecta, and spinal cord injuries, and the results have been encouraging. However, as MSC therapy gains popularity among practitioners and researchers, there have been reports on the adverse effects of MSCs especially in the context of tumour modulation and malignant transformation. These cells have been found to enhance tumour growth and metastasis in some studies and have been related to anticancer-drug resistance in other instances. In addition, various studies have also reported spontaneous malignant transformation of MSCs. The mechanism of the modulatory behaviour and the tumorigenic potential of MSCs, warrant urgent exploration, and the use of MSCs in patients with cancer awaits further evaluation. However, if MSCs truly play a role in tumour modulation, they can also be potential targets of cancer treatment.
Collapse
|
128
|
Yan XL, Fu CJ, Chen L, Qin JH, Zeng Q, Yuan HF, Nan X, Chen HX, Zhou JN, Lin YL, Zhang XM, Yu CZ, Yue W, Pei XT. Mesenchymal stem cells from primary breast cancer tissue promote cancer proliferation and enhance mammosphere formation partially via EGF/EGFR/Akt pathway. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2011; 132:153-64. [PMID: 21584665 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-011-1577-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2010] [Accepted: 05/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) play a critical role in promoting cancer progression. However, it is not clear whether MSCs are located in breast cancer tissues and correlated with tumor proliferation. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of MSCs in breast cancer tissues and evaluate their interactions with cancer cells. We successfully isolated and identified MSCs from primary breast cancer tissues. Breast cancer-associated MSCs (BC-MSCs) showed homogenous immunophenotype, and possessed tri-lineage differentiation potential (osteoblast, adipocyte, and chondrocyte). When co-transplanted with cancer cells in a xenograft model in vivo, BC-MSCs significantly increased the volume and weight of tumors. We observed that BC-MSCs stimulated mammosphere formation in the transwell co-culture system in vitro. This effect was significantly suppressed by the EGF receptor inhibitor. We verified that BC-MSCs could secrete EGF and activate cancer cell's EGF receptors. Furthermore, our data showed that EGF derived from BC-MSCs could promote mammosphere formation via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Our results confirmed the presence of MSC in primary breast cancer tissues, and they could provide a favorable microenvironment for tumor cell growth in vivo, partially enhance mammosphere formation via the EGF/EGFR/Akt pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin-long Yan
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Lab, Beijing Institute of Transfusion Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
129
|
Abdel aziz MT, El Asmar MF, Atta HM, Mahfouz S, Fouad HH, Roshdy NK, Rashed LA, Sabry D, Hassouna AA, Taha FM. Efficacy of mesenchymal stem cells in suppression of hepatocarcinorigenesis in rats: possible role of Wnt signaling. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2011; 30:49. [PMID: 21545718 PMCID: PMC3113743 DOI: 10.1186/1756-9966-30-49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Background The present study was conducted to evaluate the tumor suppressive effects of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in an experimental hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) model in rats and to investigate the possible role of Wnt signaling in hepato-carcinogenesis. Methods Ninety rats were included in the study and were divided equally into: Control group, rats which received MSCs only, rats which received MSCs vehicle only, HCC group induced by diethylnitroseamine (DENA) and CCl4, rats which received MSCs after HCC induction, rats which received MSCs before HCC induction. Histopathological examination and gene expression of Wnt signaling target genes by real time, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in rat liver tissue, in addition to serum levels of ALT, AST and alpha fetoprotein were performed in all groups. Results Histopathological examination of liver tissue from animals which received DENA-CCl4 only, revealed the presence of anaplastic carcinoma cells and macro-regenerative nodules type II with foci of large and small cell dysplasia. Administration of MSCs into rats after induction of experimental HCC improved the histopathological picture which showed minimal liver cell damage, reversible changes, areas of cell drop out filled with stem cells. Gene expression in rat liver tissue demonstrated that MSCs downregulated β-catenin, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclin D and survivin genes expression in liver tissues after HCC induction. Amelioration of the liver status after administration of MSCs has been inferred by the significant decrease of ALT, AST and Alpha fetoprotein serum levels. Administration of MSCs before HCC induction did not show any tumor suppressive or protective effect. Conclusions Administration of MSCs in chemically induced HCC has tumor suppressive effects as evidenced by down regulation of Wnt signaling target genes concerned with antiapoptosis, mitogenesis, cell proliferation and cell cycle regulation, with subsequent amelioration of liver histopathological picture and liver function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed T Abdel aziz
- Unit of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
130
|
Lessons from (patho)physiological tissue stiffness and their implications for drug screening, drug delivery and regenerative medicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2011; 63:269-76. [PMID: 21241759 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2011.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2010] [Revised: 12/27/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Diseased tissues are noted for their compromised mechanical properties, which contribute to organ failure; regeneration entails restoration of tissue structure and thereby functions. Thus, the physical signature of a tissue is closely associated with its biological function. In this review, we consider a mechanics-centric view of disease and regeneration by drawing parallels between in vivo tissue-level observations and corroborative cellular evidence in vitro to demonstrate the importance of the mechanical stiffness of the extracellular matrix in these processes. This is not intended to devalue the importance of biochemical signaling; in fact, as we discuss, many mechanical stiffness-driven processes not only require cooperation with biochemical cues, but they ultimately converge at common signaling cascades to influence cell and tissue function in an integrative manner. The study of how physical and biochemical signals collectively modulate cell function not only brings forth a more holistic understanding of cell (patho)biology, but it also creates opportunities to control material properties to improve culture platforms for research and drug screening and aid in the rationale design of biomaterials for molecular therapy and tissue engineering applications.
Collapse
|
131
|
Herberts CA, Kwa MSG, Hermsen HPH. Risk factors in the development of stem cell therapy. J Transl Med 2011; 9:29. [PMID: 21418664 PMCID: PMC3070641 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-9-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 465] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell therapy holds the promise to treat degenerative diseases, cancer and repair of damaged tissues for which there are currently no or limited therapeutic options. The potential of stem cell therapies has long been recognised and the creation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) has boosted the stem cell field leading to increasing development and scientific knowledge. Despite the clinical potential of stem cell based medicinal products there are also potential and unanticipated risks. These risks deserve a thorough discussion within the perspective of current scientific knowledge and experience. Evaluation of potential risks should be a prerequisite step before clinical use of stem cell based medicinal products. The risk profile of stem cell based medicinal products depends on many risk factors, which include the type of stem cells, their differentiation status and proliferation capacity, the route of administration, the intended location, in vitro culture and/or other manipulation steps, irreversibility of treatment, need/possibility for concurrent tissue regeneration in case of irreversible tissue loss, and long-term survival of engrafted cells. Together these factors determine the risk profile associated with a stem cell based medicinal product. The identified risks (i.e. risks identified in clinical experience) or potential/theoretical risks (i.e. risks observed in animal studies) include tumour formation, unwanted immune responses and the transmission of adventitious agents. Currently, there is no clinical experience with pluripotent stem cells (i.e. embryonal stem cells and iPSC). Based on their characteristics of unlimited self-renewal and high proliferation rate the risks associated with a product containing these cells (e.g. risk on tumour formation) are considered high, if not perceived to be unacceptable. In contrast, the vast majority of small-sized clinical trials conducted with mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSC) in regenerative medicine applications has not reported major health concerns, suggesting that MSC therapies could be relatively safe. However, in some clinical trials serious adverse events have been reported, which emphasizes the need for additional knowledge, particularly with regard to biological mechanisms and long term safety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carla A Herberts
- Centre for Biological Medicines and Medical Technology, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
132
|
Roux S, Leotot J, Chevallier N, Bierling P, Rouard H. [Mesenchymal stromal cells: Biological properties and clinical prospects]. Transfus Clin Biol 2011; 18:1-12. [PMID: 21367635 DOI: 10.1016/j.tracli.2011.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stromal cells are defined as non-hematopoietic progenitors characterised by their adherence to plastic in culture, their expression of non-specific markers and their differentiation potential into cells of mesodermic lineage. Resident in numerous tissues, mesenchymal stromal cells are now available from several sources, including both adult and foetal tissues. After their administration, mesenchymal stromal cells preferentially migrate to injured tissues. Mesenchymal stromal cells have therapeutic effects in numerous animal models of tissue injury by a mechanism not yet clearly understood. Mechanisms likely involved in repair can be the production of paracrine, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic factors, as well as cell replacement by their differentiation potential. Mesenchymal stromal cells possess immunosuppressive properties on both innate and adaptative immunity in vitro and in animal models of autoimmunity. Currently their immunosuppressive properties allow testing of mesenchymal stromal cells in allogenic context, although this use requires further investigations. Mesenchymal stromal cells can be isolated and expanded in vitro in clinical grade conditions. They represent a promising candidate for the cellular therapy of diseases, such as acute myocardial infarction, diabetes, graft versus host disease or neurodegenerative diseases. Critical points including the standardization of production and long term toxicity have to be resolved before their large scale use in clinical conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Roux
- EA3952, université Paris-Est Créteil Val-de-Marne, 61, avenue du Général-de-Gaulle, 94010 Créteil cedex, France.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
133
|
|
134
|
Roger M, Clavreul A, Venier-Julienne MC, Passirani C, Montero-Menei C, Menei P. The potential of combinations of drug-loaded nanoparticle systems and adult stem cells for glioma therapy. Biomaterials 2011; 32:2106-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.11.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2010] [Accepted: 11/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
135
|
Luetzkendorf J, Mueller LP, Mueller T, Caysa H, Nerger K, Schmoll HJ. Growth inhibition of colorectal carcinoma by lentiviral TRAIL-transgenic human mesenchymal stem cells requires their substantial intratumoral presence. J Cell Mol Med 2011; 14:2292-304. [PMID: 19508388 PMCID: PMC3822570 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2009.00794.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) constitutes a common malignancy with limited therapeutic options in metastasized stages. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) home to tumours and may therefore serve as a novel therapeutic tool for intratumoral delivery of antineoplastic factors. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) which promises apoptosis induction preferentially in tumour cells represents such a factor. We generated TRAIL-MSC by transduction of human MSC with a third generation lentiviral vector system and analysed their characteristics and capacity to inhibit CRC growth. (1) TRAIL-MSC showed stable transgene expression with neither changes in the defining MSC characteristics nor signs of malignant transformation. (2) Upon direct in vitro coculture TRAIL-MSC induced apoptosis in TRAIL-sensitive CRC-cell lines (DLD-1 and HCT-15) but also in CRC-cell lines resistant to soluble TRAIL (HCT-8 and SW480). (3) In mixed subcutaneous (s.c.) xenografts TRAIL-MSC inhibited CRC-tumour growth presumably by apoptosis induction but a substantial proportion of TRAIL-MSC within the total tumour cell number was needed to yield such anti-tumour effect. (4) Systemic application of TRAIL-MSC had no effect on the growth of s.c. DLD-1 xenografts which appeared to be due to a pulmonary entrapment and low rate of tumour integration of TRAIL-MSC. Systemic TRAIL-MSC caused no toxicity in this model. (5) Wild-type MSC seemed to exert a tumour growth-supporting effect in mixed s.c. DLD-1 xenografts. These novel results support the idea that lentiviral TRAIL-transgenic human MSC may serve as vehicles for clinical tumour therapy but also highlight the need for further investigations to improve tumour integration of transgenic MSC and to clarify a potential tumour-supporting effect by MSC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Luetzkendorf
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Oncology/Hematology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
136
|
Goldstein RH, Reagan MR, Anderson K, Kaplan DL, Rosenblatt M. Human bone marrow-derived MSCs can home to orthotopic breast cancer tumors and promote bone metastasis. Cancer Res 2011; 70:10044-50. [PMID: 21159629 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-1254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
American women have a nearly 25% lifetime risk of developing breast cancer, with 20% to 40% of these patients developing life-threatening metastases. More than 70% of patients presenting with metastases have skeletal involvement, which signals progression to an incurable stage. Tumor-stroma cell interactions are only superficially understood, specifically regarding the ability of stromal cells to affect metastasis. In vivo models show that exogenously supplied human bone marrow-derived stem cells (hBMSC) migrate to breast cancer tumors, but no reports have shown endogenous hBMSC migration from the bone to primary tumors. Here, we present a model of in vivo hBMSC migration from a physiologic human bone environment to human breast tumors. Furthermore, hBMSCs alter tumor growth and bone metastasis frequency. These may home to certain breast tumors based on tumor-derived TGF-β1. Moreover, at the primary tumor level, interleukin 17B (IL-17B)/IL-17BR signaling may mediate interactions between hBMSCs and breast cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Goldstein
- Program in Genetics, Sackler School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
137
|
|
138
|
Chen CY, Wu HH, Chen CP, Chern SR, Hwang SM, Huang SF, Lo WH, Chen GY, Hu YC. Biosafety Assessment of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells Engineered by Hybrid Baculovirus Vectors. Mol Pharm 2011; 8:1505-14. [DOI: 10.1021/mp100368d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Yuan Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan 300
| | - Hsiao-Hsuan Wu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan 300
| | - Chih-Ping Chen
- Division of Genetics, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan 104
| | - Schu-Rern Chern
- Division of Genetics, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan 104
| | - Shiaw-Min Hwang
- Bioresource Collection and Research Center, Food Industry Research and Development Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan 300
| | - Shiu-Feng Huang
- Division of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli, Taiwan 350
| | - Wen-Hsin Lo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan 300
| | - Guan-Yu Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan 300
| | - Yu-Chen Hu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan 300
| |
Collapse
|
139
|
Iannitti T, Lodi D, Palmieri B. Intra-articular injections for the treatment of osteoarthritis: focus on the clinical use of hyaluronic acid. Drugs R D 2011; 11:13-27. [PMID: 21142290 PMCID: PMC3586124 DOI: 10.2165/11539760-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA), also called degenerative joint disease, is the most frequently occurring chronic musculoskeletal disease, particularly affecting the aging population. The use of viscosupplementation, i.e. intra-articular (IA) hyaluronic acid (HA) drug therapy, to treat OA, is growing worldwide, due to important results obtained from several clinical trials, which reported IA HA-related improvements in functional activity and pain management. This review is an update of the IA use of this compound in the treatment of OA, with clinical evidence from the last few years being discussed and used to delineate new trends for the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Iannitti
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
140
|
van Buul GM, van Osch GJVM. Musculoskeletal Stem Cells. Regen Med 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9075-1_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
|
141
|
Bhat ZF, Fayaz H. Prospectus of cultured meat—advancing meat alternatives. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s13197-010-0198-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
|
142
|
Implications of the immunoregulatory functions of mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of human liver diseases. Cell Mol Immunol 2010; 8:19-22. [PMID: 21200380 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2010.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) has been recently studied in animal models, and in clinical trials of patients with fulminant hepatic failure, end-stage liver diseases and inherited metabolic disorders. Modulatory cytokines produced by MSCs can inhibit immunocyte proliferation and migration to the liver, thereby attenuating inflammatory injury and reducing hepatocyte apoptosis. In addition, MSCs play an important role in regressing liver fibrosis and in supporting the function, proliferation and differentiation of endogenous hepatocytes under appropriate conditions. Although remarkable progress has been achieved in basic and clinical MSC studies, optimal therapeutic regimens for the clinical application of MSCs, such as optimal doses, transplantation routine and interval period for transplantation, need to be elucidated in detail. Furthermore, the long-term safety and therapeutic efficacy of MSC transplantation should be evaluated in future clinical trials. This review summarizes our current understanding of the immunomodulatory effects of MSC therapies on human liver diseases.
Collapse
|
143
|
Okada T. [Gene therapy with vector-producing multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells]. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 2010; 130:1513-8. [PMID: 21048411 DOI: 10.1248/yakushi.130.1513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Suicide gene therapy with retroviral vector-producing cells was feasible as an adjuvant to the surgical resection of recurrent glioblastoma, although any benefit appeared to be marginal. Further evaluation of the therapeutic strategy with the vector-producing cells must incorporate improved delivery of vectors and transgenes to the target cells. We have previously demonstrated the ability of vector-producing tumor cells engineered by the adenovirus-retrovirus hybrid vector to destroy satellite tumor cells, although therapeutic efficacy for aggressive tumor has to be further evaluated by the systemic delivery of the vector-producing cells. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) should be an effective delivery vehicle to seek out tumor cells in vivo and transport cancer-killing gene or immune products with minimal rejection reaction by the host. We developed vector-producing tumor-tracking cells to improve suicide cancer gene therapy. Nucleofection was attempted to deliver retrovirus vector components into rodent MSCs. Athymic nude mice with subcutaneous 9L glioma were received vector-producing MSCs through the left ventricular cavity. Optical bioluminescence imaging in vivo revealed accumulation of the MSCs into the subcutaneous 9L tumors but not Rat-1 transplants. Consequently, the vector-producing MSCs significantly enhanced pro-drug killing of glioma cells compared to MSCs without ability to generate progeny virus. Our study demonstrated the effective MSCs-mediated tumor transduction with progeny vector production to improve suicide gene therapy. Although therapeutic benefit in the various orthotopic or metastatic tumor models has to be further validated, this transduction strategy would eradicate evasive tumors in situ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Okada
- Department of Molecular Therapy, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
144
|
Abdel Aziz MT, El-Haggar S, Mostafa T, Atta H, Fouad H, Mahfouz S, Rashed L, Sabry D, Senbel A, Ali GA. Effect of mesenchymal stem cell penile transplantation on erectile signaling of aged rats. Andrologia 2010; 42:187-92. [PMID: 20500748 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0272.2009.00977.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell-based therapy targeted at the penile tissue has been lately considered in preclinical studies. This work aimed to assess the effect of intracavernous administration of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in aged rats (n = 100). They were subjected to single intracavernous injection (ICI) of 1.0 million MSCs, followed up for 3, 4 weeks, 3 and 4 months (each group 25 rats) and compared with both adult and aged controls (n = 50). In dissected cavernous tissues, cGMP and histopathology were assessed in addition to intracavernous pressure (ICP) measurement in some anaesthetised rats. The results showed that cavernous tissue cGMP was significantly increased in MSCs transplanted rats in all investigated groups compared with the controls. The mean cavernous cGMP levels after 3 and 4 months of MSCs transplantation were significantly increased compared with those after 3 or 4 weeks. Cavernous tissue ICP measurement showed significant increase in MSCs transplanted groups compared with the controls, more in the long-term follow up than in the shorter one. Histopathological examination detected markedly dilated sinusoidal vascular spaces in the long-term follow-up study. It is concluded that stem cell-based therapy is feasible for age-associated erectile dysfunction and could improve erectile signaling.
Collapse
|
145
|
Tikkanen J, Leskelä HV, Lehtonen ST, Vähäsarja V, Melkko J, Ahvenjärvi L, Pääkkö E, Väänänen K, Lehenkari P. Attempt to treat congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia with mesenchymal stromal cell transplantation. Cytotherapy 2010; 12:593-604. [DOI: 10.3109/14653249.2010.487898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
|
146
|
Lund TC, Kobs A, Blazar BR, Tolar J. Mesenchymal stromal cells from donors varying widely in age are of equal cellular fitness after in vitro expansion under hypoxic conditions. Cytotherapy 2010; 12:971-81. [PMID: 20807020 DOI: 10.3109/14653249.2010.509394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AIMS Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) are gaining in popularity as an experimental therapy for a number of conditions that often require expansion ex vivo prior to use. Data comparing clinical-grade MSC from various ages of donors are scant. We hypothesized that MSC from older donors may display differences in cellular fitness when expanded for clinical use. METHODS We evaluated the expression of several markers of aging, oxidative stress and growth kinetics, and telomere length, in MSC obtained from a wide age range (8 months to 58 years). RESULTS To evaluate cellular fitness we compared MSC expanded from younger (8 months-6 years) versus older (38-58 years) donors in terms of selected cell-surface markers, lipofuscin, migration ability, telomere length and expression of iNOS, PGE₂, p16INK and SOD. Results did not differ between these groups. Neither SOD activity (0.025 versus 0.028 U/mL) nor death after oxidative challenge was significantly different (1% versus 1.5%, P = 0.14). We did find that, although MSC from older individuals produced slightly fewer cells over a 28-day culture period and had a slightly longer doubling time (54 h versus 42 hr, a satisfactory clinical product could still be obtained regardless of age cohort. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, these data show that MSC can be expanded without significant alterations in expansile properties or obvious changes in parameters associated with senescence. Because cellular fitness was equivalent in these cohorts, MSC from donors up to age 58 years can be used as a source of cells for cellular therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Troy C Lund
- Division of Pediatric Blood and Marrow Transplantation Program, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
147
|
Chang DY, Yoo SW, Hong Y, Kim S, Kim SJ, Yoon SH, Cho KG, Paek SH, Lee YD, Kim SS, Suh-Kim H. The growth of brain tumors can be suppressed by multiple transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells expressing cytosine deaminase. Int J Cancer 2010; 127:1975-83. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.25383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
148
|
Roger M, Clavreul A, Venier-Julienne MC, Passirani C, Sindji L, Schiller P, Montero-Menei C, Menei P. Mesenchymal stem cells as cellular vehicles for delivery of nanoparticles to brain tumors. Biomaterials 2010; 31:8393-401. [PMID: 20688391 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2010] [Accepted: 07/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The prognosis of patients with malignant glioma remains extremely poor, despite surgery and improvements in radio- and chemo-therapies. Nanotechnologies represent great promise in glioma therapy as they protect therapeutic agent and allow its sustained release. However, new paradigms allowing tumor specific targeting and extensive intratumoral distribution must be developed to efficiently deliver nanoparticles (NPs). Knowing the tropism of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for brain tumors, the aim of this study was to obtain the proof of concept that these cells can be used as NP delivery vehicles. Two types of NPs loaded with coumarin-6 were investigated: poly-lactic acid NPs (PLA-NPs) and lipid nanocapsules (LNCs). The results show that these NPs can be efficiently internalized into MSCs while cell viability and differentiation are not affected. Furthermore, these NP-loaded cells were able to migrate toward an experimental human glioma model. These data suggest that MSCs can serve as cellular carriers for NPs in brain tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Roger
- INSERM Unit 646, Ingénierie de la Vectorisation Particulaire, 10 rue André Bocquel, Université d'Angers, 49100 Angers, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
149
|
Larson BL, Ylostalo J, Lee RH, Gregory C, Prockop DJ. Sox11 is expressed in early progenitor human multipotent stromal cells and decreases with extensive expansion of the cells. Tissue Eng Part A 2010; 16:3385-94. [PMID: 20626275 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There has been considerable interest in developing new therapies with adult multipotent progenitor stromal cells or mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in organ replacement and repair. To be effectively seeded into scaffolds for therapy, large numbers of cells are needed, but concerns remain regarding their chromatin stability in long-term culture. We therefore expanded four donors of human MSCs (hMSCs) from bone marrow aspirates with a protocol that maintains the cells at low density. MSCs initially proliferated at average doubling times of 24 h and then gradually reached senescence after 8-15 passages (33-55 population doublings) without evidence of immortalization. Comparative genomic hybridization assays of two preparations revealed no abnormalities through 33 population doublings. One preparation had a small amplification of unknown significance in chromosome 7 (7q21:11) after 55 population doublings. Microarray assays demonstrated progressive changes in the transcriptome of the cells. However, the transcriptomes clustered more closely over time within a single passage, rather than with passage number, indicating a partial reversibility of the patterns of gene expression. One of the largest changes was a decrease in mRNA for Sox11, a transcription factor previously identified in neural progenitor cells. Knockdown of Sox11 with siRNA decreased the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation potential of hMSCs. The results suggested that assays for Sox11 may provide a biomarker for early progenitor hMSCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin L Larson
- Center for Gene Therapy, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
150
|
Lin G, Yang R, Banie L, Wang G, Ning H, Li LC, Lue TF, Lin CS. Effects of transplantation of adipose tissue-derived stem cells on prostate tumor. Prostate 2010; 70:1066-73. [PMID: 20232361 PMCID: PMC2877148 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obesity is a risk factor for prostate cancer development, but the underlying mechanism is unknown. The present study tested the hypothesis that stromal cells of the adipose tissue might be recruited by cancer cells to help tumor growth. METHODS PC3 prostate cancer cells were transplanted into the subcutaneous space of the right flank of athymic mice. One week later, adipose tissue-derived stromal or stem cells (ADSC) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, as control) was transplanted similarly to the left flank. Tumor size was monitored for the next 34 days; afterwards, the mice were sacrificed and their tumors harvested for histological examination. The ability of PC3 cells to attract ADSC was tested by migration assay. The involvement of the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis was tested by migration assay in the presence of a specific inhibitor AMD3100. RESULTS Throughout the entire course, the average size of PC3 tumors in ADSC-treated mice was larger than in PBS-treated mice. ADSC were identified inside the tumors of ADSC-treated mice; CXCR4 expression was also detected. Migration assay indicated the involvement of the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis in the migration of ADSC toward PC3 cells. Capillary density was twice as high in the tumors of ADSC-treated mice than in the tumors of PBS-treated mice. VEGF expression was similar but FGF2 expression was significantly higher in tumors of ADSC-treated mice than in the tumors of PBS-tread mice. CONCLUSION Prostate cancer cells recruited ADSC by the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis. ADSC helps tumor growth by increasing tumor vascularity, and which was mediated by FGF2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guiting Lin
- Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Rong Yang
- Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Lia Banie
- Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Guifang Wang
- Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Hongxiu Ning
- Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Long-Cheng Li
- Department of Urology and Helen-Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Tom F. Lue
- Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Ching-Shwun Lin
- Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
- Correspondence to: Ching-Shwun Lin, Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0738.
| |
Collapse
|