101
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Yi M, Xu L, Jiao Y, Luo S, Li A, Wu K. The role of cancer-derived microRNAs in cancer immune escape. J Hematol Oncol 2020; 13:25. [PMID: 32222150 PMCID: PMC7103070 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-020-00848-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During malignant transformation, accumulated somatic mutations endow cancer cells with increased invasiveness and immunogenicity. Under selective pressure, these highly immunogenic cancer cells develop multiple strategies to evade immune attack. It has been well established that cancer cells could downregulate the expression of major histocompatibility complex, acquire alterations in interferon pathway, and upregulate the activities of immune checkpoint pathways. Besides, cancer cells secret numerous cytokines, exosomes, and microvesicles to regulate the functions and abundances of components in the tumor microenvironment including immune effector cells and professional antigen presentation cells. As the vital determinant of post-transcriptional regulation, microRNAs (miRNAs) not only participate in cancer initiation and progression but also regulate anti-cancer immune response. For instance, some miRNAs affect cancer immune surveillance and immune escape by interfering the expression of immune attack-associated molecules. A growing body of evidence indicated that cancer-derived immune modulatory miRNAs might be promising targets to counteract cancer immune escape. In this review, we summarized the role of some miRNAs in cancer immune escape and discussed their potential clinical application as treatment targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Yi
- Department of Oncology, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030 China
| | - Linping Xu
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University & Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450008 China
| | - Ying Jiao
- Department of Oncology, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030 China
| | - Suxia Luo
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University & Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450008 China
| | - Anping Li
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University & Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450008 China
| | - Kongming Wu
- Department of Oncology, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030 China
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University & Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450008 China
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102
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Klussmeier A, Massalski C, Putke K, Schäfer G, Sauter J, Schefzyk D, Pruschke J, Hofmann J, Fürst D, Carapito R, Bahram S, Schmidt AH, Lange V. High-Throughput MICA/B Genotyping of Over Two Million Samples: Workflow and Allele Frequencies. Front Immunol 2020; 11:314. [PMID: 32153595 PMCID: PMC7047279 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
MICA and MICB are ligands of the NKG2D receptor and thereby influence NK and T cell activity. MICA/B gene polymorphisms, expression levels and the amount of soluble MICA/B in the serum have been linked to autoimmune diseases, infections, and cancer. In hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, MICA matching between donor and patient has been correlated with reduced acute and chronic graft-vs.-host disease and improved survival. Hence, we developed an extremely cost-efficient high-throughput workflow for genotyping MICA/B for newly registered potential stem cell donors. Since mid-2017, we have genotyped over two million samples using NGS amplicon sequencing for MICA/B exons 2–5. In donors of German origin, MICA*008 is the most common MICA allele with a frequency of 42.3%. It is followed by MICA*002 (11.7%) and MICA*009 (8.8%). The three most common MICB alleles are MICB*005 (43.9%), MICB*004 (21.7%), and MICB*002 (18.9%). In general, MICB is less diverse than MICA and only 6 alleles, instead of 15, account for a cumulative allele frequency of 99.5%. In 0.5% of the samples we observed at least one allele of MICA or MICB which has so far not been reported to the IPD/IMGT-HLA database. By providing MICA/B typed voluntary donors, clinicians become empowered to include MICA/B into their donor selection process to further improve unrelated hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Daniel Fürst
- Institute of Clinical Transfusion Medicine and Immunogenetics Ulm, German Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service, Baden Wuerttemberg - Hessen, and University Hospital Ulm, Ulm, Germany.,Institute of Transfusion Medicine, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Raphael Carapito
- Laboratoire d'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Plateforme GENOMAX, INSERM UMR_S 1109, LabEx TRANSPLANTEX, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Seiamak Bahram
- Laboratoire d'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Plateforme GENOMAX, INSERM UMR_S 1109, LabEx TRANSPLANTEX, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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103
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Sayitoglu EC, Georgoudaki AM, Chrobok M, Ozkazanc D, Josey BJ, Arif M, Kusser K, Hartman M, Chinn TM, Potens R, Pamukcu C, Krueger R, Zhang C, Mardinoglu A, Alici E, Temple HT, Sutlu T, Duru AD. Boosting Natural Killer Cell-Mediated Targeting of Sarcoma Through DNAM-1 and NKG2D. Front Immunol 2020; 11:40. [PMID: 32082316 PMCID: PMC7001093 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcomas are malignancies of mesenchymal origin that occur in bone and soft tissues. Many are chemo- and radiotherapy resistant, thus conventional treatments fail to increase overall survival. Natural Killer (NK) cells exert anti-tumor activity upon detection of a complex array of tumor ligands, but this has not been thoroughly explored in the context of sarcoma immunotherapy. In this study, we investigated the NK cell receptor/ligand immune profile of primary human sarcoma explants. Analysis of tumors from 32 sarcoma patients identified the proliferative marker PCNA and DNAM-1 ligands CD112 and/or CD155 as commonly expressed antigens that could be efficiently targeted by genetically modified (GM) NK cells. Despite the strong expression of CD112 and CD155 on sarcoma cells, characterization of freshly dissociated sarcomas revealed a general decrease in tumor-infiltrating NK cells compared to the periphery, suggesting a defect in the endogenous NK cell response. We also applied a functional screening approach to identify relevant NK cell receptor/ligand interactions that induce efficient anti-tumor responses using a panel NK-92 cell lines GM to over-express 12 different activating receptors. Using GM NK-92 cells against primary sarcoma explants (n = 12) revealed that DNAM-1 over-expression on NK-92 cells led to efficient degranulation against all tested explants (n = 12). Additionally, NKG2D over-expression showed enhanced responses against 10 out of 12 explants. These results show that DNAM-1+ or NKG2D+ GM NK-92 cells may be an efficient approach in targeting sarcomas. The degranulation capacity of GM NK-92 cell lines was also tested against various established tumor cell lines, including neuroblastoma, Schwannoma, melanoma, myeloma, leukemia, prostate, pancreatic, colon, and lung cancer. Enhanced degranulation of DNAM-1+ or NKG2D+ GM NK-92 cells was observed against the majority of tumor cell lines tested. In conclusion, DNAM-1 or NKG2D over-expression elicited a dynamic increase in NK cell degranulation against all sarcoma explants and cancer cell lines tested, including those that failed to induce a notable response in WT NK-92 cells. These results support the broad therapeutic potential of DNAM-1+ or NKG2D+ GM NK-92 cells and GM human NK cells for the treatment of sarcomas and other malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ece Canan Sayitoglu
- Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States.,NSU Cell Therapy Institute, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Anna-Maria Georgoudaki
- Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States.,NSU Cell Therapy Institute, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States.,Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael Chrobok
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Didem Ozkazanc
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Benjamin J Josey
- Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States.,NSU Cell Therapy Institute, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Muhammad Arif
- Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kim Kusser
- Translational Research and Economic Development, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Michelle Hartman
- Translational Research and Economic Development, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Tamara M Chinn
- Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Renee Potens
- NSU Cell Therapy Institute, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Cevriye Pamukcu
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Robin Krueger
- Translational Research and Economic Development, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adil Mardinoglu
- Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.,Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Evren Alici
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Harry Thomas Temple
- Department of Surgery, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States
| | - Tolga Sutlu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bogaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Adil Doganay Duru
- Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States.,NSU Cell Therapy Institute, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, United States.,Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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104
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Sharma P, Diergaarde B, Ferrone S, Kirkwood JM, Whiteside TL. Melanoma cell-derived exosomes in plasma of melanoma patients suppress functions of immune effector cells. Sci Rep 2020; 10:92. [PMID: 31919420 PMCID: PMC6952363 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56542-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma patients' plasma contains exosomes produced by malignant and normal cells. Plasma exosomes were isolated and separated by immunocapture into two fractions: melanoma cell-derived exosomes (MTEX) and normal cell-derived exosomes (non-MTEX). Immunosuppressive effects of MTEX on primary human immune cells were evaluated. Exosomes were isolated from plasma of 12 melanoma patients and six healthy donors (HDs). Expression levels of 19 immunoregulatory proteins in MTEX, non-MTEX and HDs exosomes were evaluated by on-bead flow cytometry. Functional/phenotypic changes induced in CD8+ T or natural killer (NK) cells by MTEX or non-MTEX were compared. Plasma protein levels were higher in patients than HDs (P < 0.0009). In patients, MTEX accounted for 23-66% of total exosomes. MTEX were enriched in immunosuppressive proteins (P = 0.03). MTEX, but not HDs exosomes, inhibited CD69 expression (P ≤ 0.0008), induced apoptosis (P ≤ 0.0009) and suppressed proliferation (P ≤ 0.002) in CD8+ T cells and downregulated NKG2D expression in NK cells (P = 0.001). Non-MTEX were enriched in immunostimulatory proteins (P = 0.002) and were only weakly immunosuppressive. Elevated MTEX/total exosome ratios and, surprisingly, non-MTEX ability to induce apoptosis of CD8+ T cells emerged as positive correlates of disease stage. MTEX emerge as the major mechanism of tumor-induced immune suppression and as an underestimated barrier to successful melanoma immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Sharma
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Brenda Diergaarde
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Soldano Ferrone
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - John M Kirkwood
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and UPMC Hillman Cancer, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Theresa L Whiteside
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
- Departments of Immunology and Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
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105
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Engineered IL-7 Receptor Enhances the Therapeutic Effect of AXL-CAR-T Cells on Triple-Negative Breast Cancer. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:4795171. [PMID: 31998790 PMCID: PMC6970498 DOI: 10.1155/2020/4795171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a very aggressive malignant type of tumor that currently lacks effective targeted therapies. In hematological malignancies, chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells have shown very significant antitumor ability; however, in solid tumors, the efficacy is poor. In order to apply CAR-T cells in the treatment of TNBC, in this study, constitutively activated IL-7 receptor (C7R) that has been reported is used to enhance the antitumor function of constructed CAR-T cells by ourselves. Using in vitro coincubation experiments with target cells and in vivo antitumor experiments in mice, we found that the coexpressed C7R can significantly improve the activation, cell proliferation, and cytotoxicity of CAR-T cells. In addition, the in vivo experiments suggested that the enhanced CAR-T cells displayed significant antitumor activity in a TNBC subcutaneous xenograft model, in which in vivo, the survival time of CAR-T cells was prolonged. Together, these results indicated that CAR-T cells that coexpress C7R may be a novel therapeutic strategy for TNBC.
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106
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Wang Y, Hays E, Rama M, Bonavida B. Cell-mediated immune resistance in cancer. CANCER DRUG RESISTANCE (ALHAMBRA, CALIF.) 2020; 3:232-251. [PMID: 35310881 PMCID: PMC8932590 DOI: 10.20517/cdr.2019.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The genetic and epigenetic aberrations that underlie immune resistance lead to tumors that are refractory to clinically established and experimental immunotherapies, including monoclonal antibodies and T cell-based therapies. From various forms of cytotoxic T cells to small molecule inhibitors that revamp the tumor microenvironment, these therapies have demonstrated notable responses in cancer models and a resistant subset of cancer patients, used both alone and in combination. However, even current approaches, such as those targeting checkpoint molecules, tumor ligands, and involving gene-related therapies, present a challenge in non-responding patients. In this perspective, we discuss the most common mechanisms of immune resistance, including tumor heterogeneity, tumor ligand and major histocompatibility complex modulation, anti-apoptotic pathways, checkpoint inhibitory ligands, immunosuppressive cells and factors in the tumor microenvironment, and activation-induced cell death. In addition, we discuss the strategies designed to circumvent these resistance pathways to showcase the potential of emerging technologies in battling the rise of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhao Wang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, The University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90025-1747, USA
| | - Emily Hays
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, The University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90025-1747, USA
| | - Martina Rama
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, The University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90025-1747, USA
| | - Benjamin Bonavida
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, The University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90025-1747, USA
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107
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Ducimetière L, Vermeer M, Tugues S. The Interplay Between Innate Lymphoid Cells and the Tumor Microenvironment. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2895. [PMID: 31921156 PMCID: PMC6923277 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The multifaceted roles of Innate Lymphoid Cells (ILC) have been widely interrogated in tumor immunity. Whereas, Natural Killer (NK) cells possess undisputable tumor-suppressive properties across multiple types of cancer, the other ILC family members can either promote or inhibit tumor growth depending on the environmental conditions. The differential effects of ILCs on tumor outcome have been attributed to the high degree of heterogeneity and plasticity within the ILC family members. However, it is now becoming clear that ILCs responses are shaped by their dynamic crosstalk with the different components of the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this review, we will give insights into the molecular and cellular players of the ILCs-TME interactions and we will discuss how we can use this knowledge to successfully harness the activity of ILCs for anticancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ducimetière
- Innate Lymphoid Cells and Cancer, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marijne Vermeer
- Innate Lymphoid Cells and Cancer, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sonia Tugues
- Innate Lymphoid Cells and Cancer, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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108
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Kanevskiy L, Erokhina S, Kobyzeva P, Streltsova M, Sapozhnikov A, Kovalenko E. Dimorphism of HLA-E and its Disease Association. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20215496. [PMID: 31690066 PMCID: PMC6862560 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20215496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
HLA-E is a nonclassical member of the major histocompatibility complex class I gene locus. HLA-E protein shares a high level of homology with MHC Ia classical proteins: it has similar tertiary structure, associates with β2-microglobulin, and is able to present peptides to cytotoxic lymphocytes. The main function of HLA-E under normal conditions is to present peptides derived from the leader sequences of classical HLA class I proteins, thus serving for monitoring of expression of these molecules performed by cytotoxic lymphocytes. However, opposite to multiallelic classical MHC I genes, HLA-E in fact has only two alleles—HLA-E*01:01 and HLA-E*01:03—which differ by one nonsynonymous amino acid substitution at position 107, resulting in an arginine in HLA-E*01:01 (HLA-ER) and glycine in HLA-E*01:03 (HLA-EG). In contrast to HLA-ER,HLA-EG has higher affinity to peptide, higher surface expression, and higher thermal stability of the corresponding protein, and it is more ancient than HLA-ER, though both alleles are presented in human populations in nearly equal frequencies. In the current review, we aimed to uncover the reason of the expansion of the younger allele, HLA-ER, by analysis of associations of both HLA-E alleles with a number of diseases, including viral and bacterial infections, cancer, and autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonid Kanevskiy
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, Miklukho-Maklaya St., Moscow 117997, Russia.
| | - Sofya Erokhina
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, Miklukho-Maklaya St., Moscow 117997, Russia.
| | - Polina Kobyzeva
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, Miklukho-Maklaya St., Moscow 117997, Russia.
| | - Maria Streltsova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, Miklukho-Maklaya St., Moscow 117997, Russia.
| | - Alexander Sapozhnikov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, Miklukho-Maklaya St., Moscow 117997, Russia.
| | - Elena Kovalenko
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, Miklukho-Maklaya St., Moscow 117997, Russia.
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109
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BCL11B regulates MICA/B-mediated immune response by acting as a competitive endogenous RNA. Oncogene 2019; 39:1514-1526. [PMID: 31673069 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-019-1083-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immune surveillance is an important host protection process that inhibits carcinogenesis and maintains cellular homeostasis. The major histocompatibility complex class I-related molecules A and B (MICA and MICB) are NKG2D ligands that play important roles in tumor immune surveillance. In the present study, by a combined bioinformatics prediction and experimental approach, we identify BCL11B 3'-UTR as a putative MICA and MICB ceRNA. We demonstrate in several human cell lines of different origins that the knockdown of BCL11B downregulates surface expression of MICA and MICB. Furthermore, we demonstrate miRNA dependency of BCL11B-mediated MICA and MICB regulation in Dicer knockdown HCT116 cells. In addition, MICA/B-targeting miRNAs (miR-17, miR-93, miR-20a, miR-20b, miR-106a, and miR-106b) repressed the expression of BCL11B by targeting its 3'-UTR. Moreover, we showed that the BCL11B knockdown-mediated downregulation of MICA/B resulted in reduced NK cell elimination in vitro and in vivo through reduced recognition of NKG2D. Of particular significance, BCL11B displays tumor-suppressive properties. The expression of BCL11B is downregulated in colon cancer tissues and associated with a reduced median survival of colon cancer patients. Taken together, our study revealed a new mechanism of BCL11B that prevents immune evasion of cancerous cells by upregulation of the NKG2D ligands MICA and MICB in a ceRNA manner.
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110
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Bogomiakova ME, Eremeev AV, Lagarkova MA. At Home among Strangers: Is It Possible to Create Hypoimmunogenic Pluripotent Stem Cell Lines? Mol Biol 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893319050042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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111
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Sell S, Ilic Z. Comparison of survivor scores for differentiation therapy of cancer to those for checkpoint inhibition: Half full or half empty. Tumour Biol 2019; 41:1010428319873749. [PMID: 31496424 DOI: 10.1177/1010428319873749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentiation therapy is directed to the self-renewing cancer stem cells, as well as their progeny transit amplifying cells, to force them to mature to terminal differentiation. Differentiation therapy is effective in treatment of neuroblastomas and myeloid leukemias. Checkpoint inhibition therapy removes blocks to cancer reactive T-killer cells and allows them to react to malignant cells and limit the growth of cancer. The percentage of patients with a given cancer that responds to either therapy is less than hoped for, and the duration of response is variable. Multiplying the response rate (percentage of patients responding to therapy) by the duration of response may be used to derive a survival score for patients treated with differentiation therapy or checkpoint inhibition. By this criterion, differentiation therapy gives better survival scores than checkpoint inhibition. Yet, checkpoint inhibition is considered a great success, mostly because it may be applied to many different types of cancer, and differentiation therapy is considered relatively ineffective because it is limited to a few specific cancers. On the other hand, the cost of checkpoint inhibition treatment is 10-20 times more per patient than that of differentiation therapy. Hopefully, future combined treatments and advances in both approaches will increase the effectiveness of these cancer treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart Sell
- Division of Translational Medicine, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
- Albany College of Pharmacy and University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Zoran Ilic
- Division of Translational Medicine, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
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112
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Potential of the NKG2D/NKG2DL Axis in NK Cell-Mediated Clearance of the HIV-1 Reservoir. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184490. [PMID: 31514330 PMCID: PMC6770208 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral persistency in latently infected CD4+ T cells despite antiretroviral therapy (ART) represents a major drawback in the fight against HIV-1. Efforts to purge latent HIV-1 have been attempted using latency reversing agents (LRAs) that activate expression of the quiescent virus. However, initial trials have shown that immune responses of ART-treated patients are ineffective at clearing LRA-reactivated HIV-1 reservoirs, suggesting that an adjuvant immunotherapy is needed. Here we overview multiple lines of evidence indicating that natural killer (NK) cells have the potential to induce anti-HIV-1 responses relevant for virus eradication. In particular, we focus on the role of the NKG2D activating receptor that crucially enables NK cell-mediated killing of HIV-1-infected cells. We describe recent data indicating that LRAs can synergize with HIV-1 at upregulating ligands for NKG2D (NKG2DLs), hence sensitizing T cells that exit from viral latency for recognition and lysis by NK cells; in addition, we report in vivo and ex vivo data showing the potential benefits and drawbacks that LRAs may have on NKG2D expression and, more in general, on the cytotoxicity of NK cells. Finally, we discuss how the NKG2D/NKG2DLs axis can be exploited for the development of effective HIV-1 eradication strategies combining LRA-induced virus reactivation with recently optimized NK cell-based immunotherapies.
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113
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Han Q, Zhao H, Jiang Y, Yin C, Zhang J. HCC-Derived Exosomes: Critical Player and Target for Cancer Immune Escape. Cells 2019; 8:cells8060558. [PMID: 31181729 PMCID: PMC6627799 DOI: 10.3390/cells8060558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a primary malignancy of the liver, and currently the second most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide with increasing incidence and poor prognosis. Exosomes are now considered as important mediators of host anti-tumor immune response as well as tumor cell immune escape. HCC-derived exosomes have been shown to attenuate the cytotoxicity of T-cells and NK cells, and promote the immuno-suppressive M2 macrophages, N2 neutrophils, and Bregs. These exosomes harbor several immune-related non-coding RNAs and proteins that drive immune-escape and tumor progression, and thus may serve as potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for HCC. In a previous study, we identified miR146a as an exosomal factor that promotes M2-polarization and suppresses the anti-HCC function of T-cells. In this review, we summarized the role of tumor-derived exosomes and their key components in mediating tumor immune escape during HCC development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuju Han
- Institute of Immunopharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 Wenhua West Road, Jinan 250012, China.
| | - Huajun Zhao
- Institute of Immunopharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 Wenhua West Road, Jinan 250012, China.
| | - Yu Jiang
- Institute of Immunopharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 Wenhua West Road, Jinan 250012, China.
| | - Chunlai Yin
- Institute of Immunopharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 Wenhua West Road, Jinan 250012, China.
| | - Jian Zhang
- Institute of Immunopharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 Wenhua West Road, Jinan 250012, China.
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Zhang PF, Wei CY, Huang XY, Peng R, Yang X, Lu JC, Zhang C, Gao C, Cai JB, Gao PT, Gao DM, Shi GM, Ke AW, Fan J. Circular RNA circTRIM33-12 acts as the sponge of MicroRNA-191 to suppress hepatocellular carcinoma progression. Mol Cancer 2019; 18:105. [PMID: 31153371 PMCID: PMC6545035 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-019-1031-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Recently, the dysregulation of circular RNA (circRNA) have been shown to have important regulatory roles in cancer development and progression, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the roles of most circRNAs in HCC are still unknown. Methods The expression of circular tripartite motif containing 33–12 (circTRIM33–12) in HCC tissues and cell lines was detected by qRT-PCR. The role of circTRIM33–12 in HCC progression was assessed by western blotting, CCK-8, flow cytometry, transwell and a subcutaneous tumor mouse assays both in vitro and in vivo. In vivo circRNA precipitation, RNA immunoprecipitation, luciferase reporter assays were performed to evaluate the interaction between circTRIM33–12 and miR-191. Results Here, we found that circTRIM33–12, is downregulated in HCC tissues and cell lines. The downregulation of circTRIM33–12 in HCC was significantly correlated with malignant characteristics and served as an independent risk factor for the overall survival (OS) and recurrence-free survival (RFS) of patients with HCC after surgery. The reduced expression of circTRIM33–12 in HCC cells increases tumor proliferation, migration, invasion and immune evasion. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that circTRIM33–12 upregulated TET1 expression by sponging miR-191, resulting in significantly reduced 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) levels in HCC cells. Conclusions These results reveal the important role of circTRIM33–12 in the proliferation, migration, invasion and immune evasion abilities of HCC cells and provide a new perspective on circRNAs in HCC progression. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12943-019-1031-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng-Fei Zhang
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuan-Yuan Wei
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Yong Huang
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Peng
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan Yang
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Cheng Lu
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Chi Zhang
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Gao
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Bin Cai
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping-Ting Gao
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong-Mei Gao
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Guo-Ming Shi
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ai-Wu Ke
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jia Fan
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China. .,Cancer Center, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, People's Republic of China.
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115
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Expression profile and prognostic value of SFN in human ovarian cancer. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20190100. [PMID: 30926680 PMCID: PMC6499453 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20190100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is a highly lethal cancer in females. Therefore, it is necessary to explore effective biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of the disease. Stratifin (SFN) is a cell cycle checkpoint protein that has been reported to be involved in oncogenesis. Our studies detected the expression of SFN in ovarian cancer by Oncomine, Human Protein Atlas database and ULCAN database. Meanwhile, we found its coexpression gene by cBioPortal online tool and validated their expression in different ovarian cancer cells by western blot and reverse transcription quantitative PCR. Then, we also investigated their prognostic values via the Kaplan–Meier plotter database in different subtypes of ovarian cancer patients. The results demonstrated that SFN was found to be increased in ten various ovarian cancer datasets, compared with healthy tissues. Additionally, up-regulation of SFN expression is associated with age and cancer grades. The higher expression of SFN in all patients with ovarian cancers is significantly correlated with worse postprogression survival. In addition, high SFN expression is associated with significantly worse overall survival in patients who received chemotherapy contains gemcitabine, taxol, taxol+platin, paclitaxel and avastin. In human ovarian carcinoma SKOV3 and A2780 cells, the expression of SFN and its coexpression gene MICB were also increased at protein and mRNA levels compared with the normal ovarian epithelial cells. Based on above results, overexpression of SFN was correlated with the prognosis in ovarian cancer. The present study might be useful for better understanding the clinical significance of SFN mRNA.
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116
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Ravindranath MH, Filippone EJ, Devarajan A, Asgharzadeh S. Enhancing Natural Killer and CD8 + T Cell-Mediated Anticancer Cytotoxicity and Proliferation of CD8 + T Cells with HLA-E Monospecific Monoclonal Antibodies. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2019; 38:38-59. [PMID: 31009335 PMCID: PMC6634170 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2018.0043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic NK/CD8+ T cells interact with MHC-I ligands on tumor cells through either activating or inhibiting receptors. One of the inhibitory receptors is CD94/NKG2A. The NK/CD8+ T cell cytotoxic capability is lost when tumor-associated human leukocyte antigen, HLA-E, binds the CD94/NKG2A receptor, resulting in tumor progression and reduced survival. Failure of cancer patients to respond to natural killer (NK) cell therapies could be due to HLA-E overexpression in tumor tissues. Preventing the inhibitory receptor-ligand interaction by either receptor- or ligand-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is an innovative passive immunotherapeutic strategy for cancer. Since receptors and ligands can be monomeric or homo- or heterodimeric proteins, the efficacy of mAbs may rely on their ability to distinguish monospecific (private) functional epitopes from nonfunctional common (public) epitopes. We developed monospecific anti-HLA-E mAbs (e.g., TFL-033) that recognize only HLA-E-specific epitopes, but not epitopes shared with other HLA class-I loci as occurs with currently available polyreactive anti-HLA-E mAbs. Interestingly the amino acid sequences in the α1 and α2 helices of HLA-E, critical for the recognition of the mAb TFL-033, are strikingly the same sequences recognized by the CD94/NKG2A inhibitory receptors on NK/CD8+ cells. Such monospecific mAbs can block the CD94/NKG2A interaction with HLA-E to restore NK cell and CD8+ anticancer cell cytotoxicity. Furthermore, the HLA-E monospecific mAbs significantly promoted the proliferation of the CD4-/CD8+ T cells. These monospecific mAbs are also invaluable for the specific demonstration of HLA-E on tumor biopsies, potentially indicating those tumors most likely to respond to such therapy. Thus, they can be used to enhance passive immunotherapy once phased preclinical studies and clinical trials are completed. On principle, we postulate that NK cell passive immunotherapy should capitalize on both of these features of monospecific HLA-E mAbs, that is, the specific determination HLA-E expression on a particular tumor and the enhancement of NK cell/CD8+ cytotoxicity if HLA-E positive.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Edward J Filippone
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Asokan Devarajan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Shahab Asgharzadeh
- Department of Pediatrics and Pathology, Children's Hospital, Keck School of Medicine, USC, Los Angeles, California
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117
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Frazao A, Rethacker L, Messaoudene M, Avril MF, Toubert A, Dulphy N, Caignard A. NKG2D/NKG2-Ligand Pathway Offers New Opportunities in Cancer Treatment. Front Immunol 2019; 10:661. [PMID: 30984204 PMCID: PMC6449444 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The antitumor functions of NK cells are regulated by the integration of positive and negative signals triggered by numerous membrane receptors present on the NK cells themselves. Among the main activating receptors, NKG2D binds several stress-induced molecules on tumor targets. Engagement of NKG2D by its ligands (NKG2D-Ls) induces NK cell activation leading to production of cytokines and target cell lysis. These effects have therapeutic potential as NKG2D-Ls are widely expressed by solid tumors, whereas their expression in healthy cells is limited. Here, we describe the genetic and environmental factors regulating the NKG2D/NKG2D-L pathway in tumors. NKG2D-L expression is linked to cellular stress and cell proliferation, and has been associated with oncogenic mutations. Tumors have been found to alter their to NKG2D-L expression as they progress, which interferes with the antitumor function of the pathway. Nevertheless, this pathway could be advantageously exploited for cancer therapy. Various cancer treatments, including chemotherapy and targeted therapies, indirectly interfere with the cellular and soluble forms of NKG2D-Ls. In addition, NKG2D introduced into chimeric antigen receptors in T- and NK cells is a promising tumor immunotherapy approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Frazao
- INSERMU1160, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Louise Rethacker
- INSERMU1160, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Meriem Messaoudene
- INSERMU1160, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France.,U1015 INSERM-CIC, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
| | - Marie-Françoise Avril
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Department of Dermatology, Hospital Cochin, University Paris Descartes, Paris, France.,Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Paris, France
| | - Antoine Toubert
- INSERMU1160, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France.,Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Paris, France.,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Department of Immunology and Histocompatibility, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Dulphy
- INSERMU1160, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France.,Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Paris, France.,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Department of Immunology and Histocompatibility, Paris, France
| | - Anne Caignard
- INSERMU1160, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
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Souza-Fonseca-Guimaraes F, Cursons J, Huntington ND. The Emergence of Natural Killer Cells as a Major Target in Cancer Immunotherapy. Trends Immunol 2019; 40:142-158. [PMID: 30639050 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Immune 'checkpoint' inhibitors can increase the activity of tumor-resident cytotoxic lymphocytes and have revolutionized cancer treatment. Current therapies block inhibitory pathways in tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells and recent studies have shown similar programs in other effector populations such as natural killer (NK) cells. NK cells are critical for immunosurveillance, particularly the control of metastatic cells or hematological cancers. However, how NK cells specifically recognize transformed cells and dominant negative feedback pathways, as well as how tumors escape NK cell control, remains undefined. This review summarizes recent advances that have illuminated inhibitory checkpoints in NK cells, some of which are shared with conventional cytotoxic T lymphocytes. It also outlines emerging approaches aimed at unleashing the potential of NK cells in immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Souza-Fonseca-Guimaraes
- Molecular Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Joseph Cursons
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia; Bioinformatics Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Nicholas D Huntington
- Molecular Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia; Biomedicine Discovery Institute and the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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