Toward a predictive understanding of the fitness costs of heterospecific pollen receipt and its importance in co-flowering communities

Negative effects of heterospecific pollen receipt vary with abiotic conditions: ecological and evolutionary implications

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Studies that have evaluated the effects of heterospecific pollen (HP) receipt on plant reproductive success have generally overlooked the variability of the natural abiotic environment in which plants grow. Variability in abiotic conditions, such as light and water availability, has the potential to affect pollen-stigma interactions (i.e. conspecific pollen germination and performance), which will probably influence the effects of HP receipt. Thus, a more complete understanding of the extent, strength and consequences of plant-plant interactions via HP transfer requires better consideration of the range of abiotic conditions in which these interactions occur. This study addresses this issue by evaluating the effects of two HP donors (Tamonea curassavica and Angelonia angustifolia) on the reproductive success of Cuphea gaumeri, an endemic species of the Yucatan Peninsula.

METHODS

Mixed (conspecific pollen and HP) and pure (conspecific pollen only) hand-pollinations were conducted under varying conditions of water and light availability in a full factorial design. Reproductive success was measured as the number of pollen tubes that reached the bottom of the style.

KEY RESULTS

Only one of the two HP donors had a significant effect on C. gaumeri reproductive success, but this effect was dependent on water and light availability. Specifically, HP receipt caused a decrease in pollen tube growth, but only when the availability of water, light or both was low, and not when the availability of both resources was high.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that the outcome of interspecific post-pollination interactions via HP transfer can be context-dependent and vary with abiotic conditions, thus suggesting that abiotic effects in natural populations may be under-estimated. Such context-dependency could lead to spatial and temporal mosaics in the ecological and evolutionary consequences of post-pollination interactions.

Reproductive character displacement shapes a spatially structured petal color polymorphism in Leavenworthia stylosa

Character displacement is a potentially important process driving trait evolution and species diversification. Floral traits may experience character displacement in response to pollinator-mediated competition (ecological character displacement) or the risk of forming hybrids with reduced fitness (reproductive character displacement). We test these and alternative hypotheses to explain a yellow-white petal color polymorphism in Leavenworthia stylosa, where yellow morphs are spatially associated with a white-petaled congener (Leavenworthia exigua) that produces hybrids with complete pollen sterility. A reciprocal transplant experiment found limited evidence of local adaptation of yellow color morphs via increased survival and seed set. Pollinator observations revealed that Leavenworthia attract various pollinators that generally favor white petals and exhibit color constancy. Pollen limitation experiments showed that yellow petals do not alleviate competition for pollination. Interspecific pollinator movements were infrequent and low hybridization rates (∼0.40-0.85%) were found in each morph, with natural rates likely being lower. Regardless, hybridization rates were significantly higher in white morphs of L. stylosa, yielding a small selection coefficient of s = 0.0042 against this phenotype in sympatry with L. exigua. These results provide support for RCD as a mechanism contributing to the pattern of petal color polymorphism in L. stylosa.

Using theories of sexual selection and sexual conflict to improve our understanding of plant ecology and evolution

Today it is accepted that the theories of sexual selection and sexual conflict are general and can be applied to both animals and plants. However, potentially due to a controversial history, plant studies investigating sexual selection and sexual conflict are relatively rare. Moreover, these theories and concepts are seldom implemented in research fields investigating related aspects of plant ecology and evolution. Even though these theories are complex, and can be difficult to study, we suggest that several fields in plant biology would benefit from incorporating and testing the impact of selection pressures generated by sexual selection and sexual conflict. Here we give examples of three fields where we believe such incorporation would be particularly fruitful, including (i) mechanisms of pollen-pistil interactions, (ii) mating-system evolution in hermaphrodites and (iii) plant immune responses to pests and pathogens.

An invasive plant alters pollinator-mediated phenotypic selection on a native congener

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PREMISE OF STUDY

Recent studies suggest that invasive plants compete reproductively with native plants by reducing the quantity or quality of pollinator visits. Although these studies have revealed ecological consequences of pollinator-mediated competition between invasive and native plants, the evolutionary outcomes of these interactions remain largely unexplored.•

METHODS

We studied the ecological and evolutionary impact of pollinator-mediated competition with an invasive jewelweed, Impatiens glandulifera, on a co-occurring native congener, I. capensis. Using a pollinator choice experiment, a hand pollination experiment, and a selection analysis, we addressed the following questions: (1) Do native pollinators show preference for the invasive or native jewelweed, and do they move between the two species? (2) Does invasive jewelweed pollen inhibit seed production in the native plant? (3) Does the invasive jewelweed alter phenotypic selection on the native plant's floral traits?•

KEY RESULTS

The pollinator choice experiment showed that pollinators strongly preferred the invasive jewelweed. The hand pollination experiment demonstrated that invasive pollen inhibited seed production in the native plant. The selection analysis showed that the presence of the invasive jewelweed altered phenotypic selection on corolla height in the native plant.•

CONCLUSIONS

Invasive plants have the potential to alter phenotypic selection on floral traits in native plant populations. If native plants can evolve in response to this altered selection pressure, the evolution of floral traits may play an important role in permitting long-term coexistence of native and invasive plants.

High-altitude multi-taskers: bumble bee food plant use broadens along an altitudinal productivity gradient

We use an extensive historical data set on bumble bee host choice collected almost 50 years ago by L. W. Macior (Melanderia 15:1-59, 1974) to examine how resource partitioning by bumble bees varies over a 2,700-m altitudinal gradient at four hierarchical scales: individual, colony, species and community. Bumble bee behavior, resource overlap between castes, and plant-bumble bee networks change with altitude in accordance with tightening temporal constraints on flowering and colony growth in alpine habitats. Individual bees were more likely to collect pollen from multiple sources at high altitude. Between-caste foraging niche overlap increased with altitude. Similarly, alpine forager networks were more highly nested than either subalpine or montane networks due to increased asymmetric specialization. However, interspecific resource partitioning showed a more complex spatial pattern with low niche overlap at intermediate altitude (subalpine) compared to montane (disturbed) and alpine (unproductive) sites. Results suggest that spatial variation in interspecific resource partitioning is driven by a shift in the behavior of long-tongued bumble bees. Long-tongued bumble bees specialized in the subalpine but generalized in montane and alpine zones. Our reanalysis of Macior's data shows that bumble bee behavior varies substantially with altitude influencing plant-bumble bee interaction networks. Results imply that pollination services to alpine host plants will change dramatically as subalpine species with unique foraging strategies move upward under global warming.

Floral neighborhood influences pollinator assemblages and effective pollination in a native plant

Pollinators represent an important intermediary by which different plant species can influence each other's reproductive fitness. Floral neighbors can modify the quantity of pollinator visits to a focal species but may also influence the composition of visitor assemblages that plants receive leading to potential changes in the average effectiveness of floral visits. We explored how the heterospecific floral neighborhood (abundance of native and non-native heterospecific plants within 2 m × 2 m) affects pollinator visitation and composition of pollinator assemblages for a native plant, Phacelia parryi. The relative effectiveness of different insect visitors was also assessed to interpret the potential effects on plant fitness of shifts in pollinator assemblage composition. Although the common non-native Brassica nigra did not have a significant effect on overall pollinator visitation rate to P. parryi, the proportion of flower visits that were made by native pollinators increased with increasing abundance of heterospecific plant species in the floral neighborhood other than B. nigra. Furthermore, native pollinators deposited twice as many P. parryi pollen grains per visit as did the nonnative Apis mellifera, and visits by native bees also resulted in more seeds than visits by A. mellifera. These results indicate that the floral neighborhood can influence the composition of pollinator assemblages that visit a native plant and that changes in local flower communities have the potential to affect plant reproductive success through shifts in these assemblages towards less effective pollinators.

Constraints imposed by pollinator behaviour on the ecology and evolution of plant mating systems

Most flowering plants rely on pollinators for their reproduction. Plant-pollinator interactions, although mutualistic, involve an inherent conflict of interest between both partners and may constrain plant mating systems at multiple levels: the immediate ecological plant selfing rates, their distribution in and contribution to pollination networks, and their evolution. Here, we review experimental evidence that pollinator behaviour influences plant selfing rates in pairs of interacting species, and that plants can modify pollinator behaviour through plastic and evolutionary changes in floral traits. We also examine how theoretical studies include pollinators, implicitly or explicitly, to investigate the role of their foraging behaviour in plant mating system evolution. In doing so, we call for more evolutionary models combining ecological and genetic factors, and additional experimental data, particularly to describe pollinator foraging behaviour. Finally, we show that recent developments in ecological network theory help clarify the impact of community-level interactions on plant selfing rates and their evolution and suggest new research avenues to expand the study of mating systems of animal-pollinated plant species to the level of the plant-pollinator networks.

Following Darwin's trail: interactions affecting the evolution of plant mating systems

• Since the time of Charles Darwin, the variation in floral characteristics and its effects on plant mating system evolution have fascinated scientists. Recent advances in the field of genetics, molecular biology, and ecology have been very effective in addressing questions regarding mechanisms and interactions underlying the evolution of plant mating systems using various model and nonmodel species. The depth of plant mating system research reflects the complexity and diversity seen in nature, ranging from self-compatible hermaphroditic flowers to separate sexed individuals. Further, the mechanisms involved in the evolution of plant mating systems are much more diverse and differ even among closely related species. Here, as a special section, we present a suite of original papers that range from theoretical modeling to multiyear field research that address different factors affecting plant mating systems, and their effects on shaping interactions between plants, insects, and their environment.

A multidimensional approach to understanding floral function and form

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Variation in plant mating systems is a fundamental component of the diversity of floral form and function. Mating systems have a strong influence on the distribution and expression of genetic variation, which in turn can influence the course of mating system evolution. It has long been appreciated, however, that ecological interactions may provide much of the impetus behind these evolutionary changes. •

METHODS

This commentary reviews the Special Section in the American Journal of Botany (vol. 100, issue 6) that features novel research on the role of interactions between plants and their pollinators, seed dispersers, herbivores, and interspecific competitors in the evolution of selfing rates and gender. These studies vary in approach from empirical experiments, to phylogenetic comparisons, to theoretical models, to literature reviews as they each attempt to shed new light on longstanding questions about the selective forces and evolutionary pathways that have led to the diversified means by which plants promote or discourage self-fertilization. •

KEY RESULTS

Evidence is provided that indicates that ecological interactions (e.g., herbivory and heterospecific pollen deposition by pollinators) can strongly influence the relative advantages of selfing and outcrossing. Ecological interactions can also influence allocation to sexual functions, which will influence individual and population outcrossing rates and possibly the evolutionary path of gender expression. •

CONCLUSIONS

Mating systems evolution is clearly a multidimensional problem. Research that places the study of mating and sexual systems within a more realistic ecological context will no doubt reveal more complexity as we move toward a better understanding of plant diversity.