Magnetically responsive smart nanoparticles for cancer treatment with a combination of magnetic hyperthermia and remote-control drug release

Determining iron oxide nanoparticle heating efficiency and elucidating local nanoparticle temperature for application in agarose gel-based tumor model

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) have been developed for magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH) cancer therapy, where cancer cells are treated through the heat generated by application of a high frequency magnetic field. This heat has also been proposed as a mechanism to trigger release of chemotherapy agents. In each of these cases, MNPs with optimal heating performance can be used to maximize therapeutic effect while minimizing the required dosage of MNPs. In this study, the heating efficiencies (or specific absorption rate, SAR) of two types of MNPs were evaluated experimentally and then predicted from their magnetic properties. MNPs were also incorporated in the core of poly(ethylene glycol-b-caprolactone) micelles, co-localized with rhodamine B fluorescent dye attached to polycaprolactone to monitor local, nanoscale temperatures during magnetic heating. Despite a relatively high SAR produced by these MNPs, no significant temperature rise beyond that observed in the bulk solution was measured by fluorescence in the core of the magnetic micelles. MNPs were also incorporated into a macro-scale agarose gel system that mimicked a tumor targeted by MNPs and surrounded by healthy tissues. The agarose-based tumor models showed that targeted MNPs can reach hyperthermia temperatures inside a tumor with a sufficient MNP concentration, while causing minimal temperature rise in the healthy tissue surrounding the tumor.

Sub-Micrometer Magnetic Nanocomposites: Insights into the Effect of Magnetic Nanoparticles Interactions on the Optimization of SAR and MRI Performance

There is increasing interest in the development of new magnetic polymeric carriers for biomedical applications such as trigger-controlled drug release, magnetic hyperthermia (MH) for the treatment of cancer, and as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This work describes the synthesis of sub-micrometer and magnetic polymer nanocomposite capsules (MPNCs) by combining in one single platform the biodegradable polymer poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) and different concentrations of ∼8 nm oleic acid (OA)-functionalized magnetite nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄@OA), employing the oil-in-water emulsion/solvent evaporation method. The MPNCs showed a significant increase in particle size from ∼400 to ∼800 nm as the magnetic loading in the organic-inorganic hybrids increases from 1.0% to 10%. The MPNCs presented high incorporation efficiency of Fe₃O₄@OA nanoparticles, good colloidal stability, and super-paramagnetic properties. Interestingly, electron microscopy results showed that the Fe₃O₄@OA nanoparticles were preferentially located at the surface of the capsules. Evaluation of the magnetic properties showed that the saturation magnetization and the blocking temperature of the MPNCs samples increased as a function of the Fe₃O₄@OA loading. All the MPNCs exhibited heating when subjected to MH, and showed good specific absorption rates. Use of the formulations decreased the longitudinal (T₁) and transverse (T₂) relaxation times of water protons' nuclei, with excellent transverse relaxivity (r₂) values, especially in the case of the formulation with lowest Fe₃O₄@OA loading. Furthermore, the MPNCs-cell interaction was studied, and MPNCs showed lower cellular toxicity to normal cells compared to cancer cells. These findings help in understanding the relationships between magnetic nanoparticles and polymeric capsules, opening perspectives for their potential clinical uses as simultaneous heating sources and imaging probes in MH and MRI, respectively.

An arsenal of magnetic nanoparticles; perspectives in the treatment of cancer

Nanomedicine is an emerging field, which constitutes a new direction in the treatment of cancer. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) can circumvent vascular tissue to concentrate at the site of the tumor. Under the influence of an external, alternating magnetic field, MNPs generate high temperatures within the tumor and ablate malignant cells while inflicting minimal damage to healthy host tissue. Due to their theranostic properties, they constitute a promising candidate for the treatment of cancer. A critical review of the type, size and therapeutic effect of different MNPs is presented, following an appraisal of the literature in the last 5 years. This is a multibillion dollar industry, with a few studies moving to clinical trials within the next 5 years.

Design of iron oxide-based nanoparticles for MRI and magnetic hyperthermia

Iron oxide nanoparticles are widely used for biological applications thanks to their outstanding balance between magnetic properties, surface-to-volume ratio suitable for efficient functionalization and proven biocompatibility. Their development for MRI or magnetic particle hyperthermia concentrates much of the attention as these nanomaterials are already used within the health system as contrast agents and heating mediators. As such, the constant improvement and development for better and more reliable materials is of key importance. On this basis, this review aims to cover the rational design of iron oxide nanoparticles to be used as MRI contrast agents or heating mediators in magnetic hyperthermia, and reviews the state of the art of their use as nanomedicine tools.

Doxorubicin loaded dual pH- and thermo-responsive magnetic nanocarrier for combined magnetic hyperthermia and targeted controlled drug delivery applications

Magnetic nanocarriers have attracted increasing attention for multimodal cancer therapy due to the possibility to deliver heat and drugs locally. The present study reports the development of magnetic nanocomposites (MNCs) made of an iron oxide core and a pH- and thermo-responsive polymer shell, that can be used as both hyperthermic agent and drug carrier. The conjugation of anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) to the pH- and thermo-responsive MNCs via acid-cleavable imine linker provides advanced features for the targeted delivery of DOX molecules via the combination of magnetic targeting, and dual pH- and thermo-responsive behaviour which offers spatial and temporal control over the release of DOX. The iron oxide cores exhibit a superparamagnetic behaviour with a saturation magnetization around 70 emu g(-1). The MNCs contained 8.1 wt% of polymer and exhibit good heating properties in an alternating magnetic field. The drug release experiments confirmed that only a small amount of DOX was released at room temperature and physiological pH, while the highest drug release of 85.2% was obtained after 48 h at acidic tumour pH under hyperthermia conditions (50 °C). The drug release kinetic followed Korsmeyer-Peppas model and displayed Fickian diffusion mechanism. From the results obtained it can be concluded that this smart magnetic nanocarrier is promising for applications in multi-modal cancer therapy, to target and efficiently deliver heat and drug specifically to the tumour.

Magnetic Nanoparticle Facilitated Drug Delivery for Cancer Therapy with Targeted and Image-Guided Approaches

With rapid advances in nanomedicine, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have emerged as a promising theranostic tool in biomedical applications, including diagnostic imaging, drug delivery and novel therapeutics. Significant preclinical and clinical research has explored their functionalization, targeted delivery, controllable drug release and image-guided capabilities. To further develop MNPs for theranostic applications and clinical translation in the future, we attempt to provide an overview of the recent advances in the development and application of MNPs for drug delivery, specifically focusing on the topics concerning the importance of biomarker targeting for personalized therapy and the unique magnetic and contrast-enhancing properties of theranostic MNPs that enable image-guided delivery. The common strategies and considerations to produce theranostic MNPs and incorporate payload drugs into MNP carriers are described. The notable examples are presented to demonstrate the advantages of MNPs in specific targeting and delivering under image guidance. Furthermore, current understanding of delivery mechanisms and challenges to achieve efficient therapeutic efficacy or diagnostic capability using MNP-based nanomedicine are discussed.

Controlled actuation of therapeutic nanoparticles: an update on recent progress

A primary envisioned use for nanoparticles (NPs) in a cellular context is for controlled drug delivery where the full benefit of NP attributes (small size, large drug cargo loading capacity) can improve the pharmacokinetics of the drug cargo. This requires the ability to controllably manipulate the release of the drug cargo from the NP vehicle or ‘controlled actuation’. In this review, we highlight new developments in this field from 2013 to 2015. The number and breadth of reports are a testament to the significant advancements made in this field over this time period. We conclude with a perspective of how we envision this field to continue to develop in the years to come.

Polydopamine Nanoparticles as a Versatile Molecular Loading Platform to Enable Imaging-guided Cancer Combination Therapy

Cancer combination therapy to treat tumors with different therapeutic approaches can efficiently improve treatment efficacy and reduce side effects. Herein, we develop a theranostic nano-platform based on polydopamine (PDA) nanoparticles, which then are exploited as a versatile carrier to allow simultaneous loading of indocyanine green (ICG), doxorubicin (DOX) and manganese ions (PDA-ICG-PEG/DOX(Mn)), to enable imaging-guided chemo & photothermal cancer therapy. In this system, ICG acts as a photothermal agent, which shows red-shifted near-infrared (NIR) absorbance and enhanced photostability compared with free ICG. DOX, a model chemotherapy drug, is then loaded onto the surface of PDA-ICG-PEG with high efficiency. With Mn²⁺ ions intrinsically chelated, PDA-ICG-PEG/DOX(Mn) is able to offer contrast under T1-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. In a mouse tumor model, the MR imaging-guided combined chemo- & photothermal therapy achieves a remarkable synergistic therapeutic effect compared with the respective single treatment modality. This work demonstrates that PDA nanoparticles could serve as a versatile molecular loading platform for MR imaging guided combined chemo- & photothermal therapy with minimal side effects, showing great potential for cancer theranostics.

Versatile Nanosystem-Based Cancer Theranostics: Design Inspiration and Predetermined Routing

The relevance of personalized medicine, aimed at a more individualized drug therapy, has inspired research into nano-based concerted diagnosis and therapeutics (theranostics). As the intention is to "kill two birds with one stone", scientists have already described the emerging concept as a treasured tailor for the future of cancer therapy, wherein the main idea is to design "smart" nanosystems to concurrently discharge both therapeutic and diagnostic roles. These nanosystems are expected to offer a relatively clearer view of the ingenious cellular trafficking pathway, in-situ diagnosis, and therapeutic efficacy. We herein present a detailed review of versatile nanosystems, with prominent examples of recently developed intelligent delivery strategies which have gained attention in the field of theranostics. These nanotheranostics include various mechanisms programmed in novel platforms to enable predetermined delivery of cargo to specific sites, as well as techniques to overcome the notable challenges involved in the efficacy of theranostics.

Multifunctional Inorganic Nanoparticles: Recent Progress in Thermal Therapy and Imaging

Nanotechnology has enabled the development of many alternative anti-cancer approaches, such as thermal therapies, which cause minimal damage to healthy cells. Current challenges in cancer treatment are the identification of the diseased area and its efficient treatment without generating many side effects. Image-guided therapies can be a useful tool to diagnose and treat the diseased tissue and they offer therapy and imaging using a single nanostructure. The present review mainly focuses on recent advances in the field of thermal therapy and imaging integrated with multifunctional inorganic nanoparticles. The main heating sources for heat-induced therapies are the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) in the near infrared region and alternating magnetic fields (AMFs). The different families of inorganic nanoparticles employed for SPR- and AMF-based thermal therapies and imaging are described. Furthermore, inorganic nanomaterials developed for multimodal therapies with different and multi-imaging modalities are presented in detail. Finally, relevant clinical perspectives and the future scope of inorganic nanoparticles in image-guided therapies are discussed.

Alternating Magnetic Field-Responsive Hybrid Gelatin Microgels for Controlled Drug Release

Magnetically-responsive nano/micro-engineered biomaterials that enable a tightly controlled, on-demand drug delivery have been developed as new types of smart soft devices for biomedical applications. Although a number of magnetically-responsive drug delivery systems have demonstrated efficacies through either in vitro proof of concept studies or in vivo preclinical applications, their use in clinical settings is still limited by their insufficient biocompatibility or biodegradability. Additionally, many of the existing platforms rely on sophisticated techniques for their fabrications. We recently demonstrated the fabrication of biodegradable, gelatin-based thermo-responsive microgel by physically entrapping poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylamide) chains as a minor component within a three-dimensional gelatin network. In this study, we present a facile method to fabricate a biodegradable drug release platform that enables a magneto-thermally triggered drug release. This was achieved by incorporating superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and thermo-responsive polymers within gelatin-based colloidal microgels, in conjunction with an alternating magnetic field application system.

Near-Infrared Light-Activatable Microneedle System for Treating Superficial Tumors by Combination of Chemotherapy and Photothermal Therapy

Because of the aggressive and recurrent nature of cancers, repeated and multimodal treatments are often necessary. Traditional cancer therapies have a risk of serious toxicity and side effects. Hence, it is crucial to develop an alternative treatment modality that is minimally invasive, effectively treats cancers with low toxicity, and can be repeated as required. We developed a light-activatable microneedle (MN) system that can repeatedly and simultaneously provide photothermal therapy and chemotherapy to superficial tumors and exert synergistic anticancer effects. This system consists of embeddable polycaprolactone MNs containing a photosensitive nanomaterial (lanthanum hexaboride) and an anticancer drug (doxorubicin; DOX), and a dissolvable poly(vinyl alcohol)/polyvinylpyrrolidone supporting array patch. Because of this supporting array, the MNs can be completely inserted into the skin and embedded within the target tissue for locoregional cancer treatment. When exposed to near-infrared light, the embedded MN array uniformly heats the target tissue to induce a large thermal ablation area and then melts at 50 °C to release DOX in a broad area, thus destroying tumors. This light-activated heating and releasing behavior can be precisely controlled and switched on and off on demand for several cycles. We demonstrated that the MN-mediated synergistic therapy completely eradicated 4T1 tumors within 1 week after a single application of the MN and three cycles of laser treatment. No tumor recurrence and no significant body weight loss of mice were observed. Thus, the developed light-activatable MN with a unique embeddable feature offers an effective, user-friendly, and low-toxicity option for patients requiring long-term and multiple cancer treatments.

A pH-responsive nanocontainer based on hydrazone-bearing hollow silica nanoparticles for targeted tumor therapy

pH-responsive hollow silica nanoparticles blocked with hyaluronic acid molecules for targeted tumor therapy with high efficiency and good biocompatibility.

Magnetic nanoparticles and nanocomposites for remote controlled therapies

This review highlights the state-of-the-art in the application of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and their composites for remote controlled therapies. Novel macro- to nano-scale systems that utilize remote controlled drug release due to actuation of MNPs by static or alternating magnetic fields and magnetic field guidance of MNPs for drug delivery applications are summarized. Recent advances in controlled energy release for thermal therapy and nanoscale energy therapy are addressed as well. Additionally, studies that utilize MNP-based thermal therapy in combination with other treatments such as chemotherapy or radiation to enhance the efficacy of the conventional treatment are discussed.

Recent advances in superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) for in vitro and in vivo cancer nanotheranostics

Recently superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have been extensively used in cancer therapy and diagnosis (theranostics) via magnetic targeting, magnetic resonance imaging, etc. due to their remarkable magnetic properties, chemical stability, and biocompatibility. However, the magnetic properties of SPIONs are influenced by various physicochemical and synthesis parameters. So, this review mainly focuses on the influence of spin canting effects, introduced by the variations in size, shape, and organic/inorganic surface coatings, on the magnetic properties of SPIONs. This review also describes the several predominant chemical synthesis procedures and role of the synthesis parameters for monitoring the size, shape, crystallinity and composition of the SPIONs. Moreover, this review discusses about the latest developments of the inorganic materials and organic polymers for encapsulation of the SPIONs. Finally, the most recent advancements of the SPIONs and their nanopackages in combination with other imaging/therapeutic agents have been comprehensively discussed for their effective usage as in vitro and in vivo theranostic agents in cancer treatments.

Magnetic Nanoparticles in Cancer Theranostics

In a report from 2008, The International Agency for Research on Cancer predicted a tripled cancer incidence from 1975, projecting a possible 13-17 million cancer deaths worldwide by 2030. While new treatments are evolving and reaching approval for different cancer types, the main prevention of cancer mortality is through early diagnosis, detection and treatment of malignant cell growth. The last decades have seen a development of new imaging techniques now in widespread clinical use. The development of nano-imaging through fluorescent imaging and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has the potential to detect and diagnose cancer at an earlier stage than with current imaging methods. The characteristic properties of nanoparticles result in their theranostic potential allowing for simultaneous detection of and treatment of the disease. This review provides state of the art of the nanotechnological applications for cancer therapy. Furthermore, it advances a novel concept of personalized nanomedical theranostic therapy using iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles in conjunction with MRI imaging. Regulatory and industrial perspectives are also included to outline future perspectives in nanotechnological cancer research.

Targeted Mesoporous Iron Oxide Nanoparticles-Encapsulated Perfluorohexane and a Hydrophobic Drug for Deep Tumor Penetration and Therapy

A magneto-responsive energy/drug carrier that enhances deep tumor penetration with a porous nano-composite is constructed by using a tumor-targeted lactoferrin (Lf) bio-gate as a cap on mesoporous iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs). With a large payload of a gas-generated molecule, perfluorohexane (PFH), and a hydrophobic anti-cancer drug, paclitaxel (PTX), Lf-MIONs can simultaneously perform bursting gas generation and on-demand drug release upon high-frequency magnetic field (MF) exposure. Biocompatible PFH was chosen and encapsulated in MIONs due to its favorable phase transition temperature (56 °C) and its hydrophobicity. After a short-duration MF treatment induces heat generation, the local pressure increase via the gasifying of the PFH embedded in MION can substantially rupture the three-dimensional tumor spheroids in vitro as well as enhance drug and carrier penetration. As the MF treatment duration increases, Lf-MIONs entering the tumor spheroids provide an intense heat and burst-like drug release, leading to superior drug delivery and deep tumor thermo-chemo-therapy. With their high efficiency for targeting tumors, Lf-MIONs/PTX-PFH suppressed subcutaneous tumors in 16 days after a single MF exposure. This work presents the first study of using MF-induced PFH gasification as a deep tumor-penetrating agent for drug delivery.

Functionalization of strongly interacting magnetic nanocubes with (thermo)responsive coating and their application in hyperthermia and heat-triggered drug delivery

Herein, we prepare nanohybrids by incorporating iron oxide nanocubes (cubic-IONPs) within a thermoresponsive polymer shell that can act as drug carriers for doxorubicin(doxo). The cubic-shaped nanoparticles employed are at the interface between superparamagnetic and ferromagnetic behavior and have an exceptionally high specific absorption rate (SAR), but their functionalization is extremely challenging compared to bare superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as they strongly interact with each other. By conducting the polymer grafting reaction using reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization in a viscous solvent medium, we have here developed a facile approach to decorate the nanocubes with stimuli-responsive polymers. When the thermoresponsive shell is composed of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-polyethylene glycolmethyl ether acrylate), nanohybrids have a phase transition temperature, the lower critical solution temperature (LCST), above 37 °C in physiological conditions. Doxo loaded nanohybrids exhibited a negligible drug release below 37 °C but showed a consistent release of their cargo on demand by exploiting the capability of the nanocubes to generate heat under an alternating magnetic field (AMF). Moreover, the drug free nanocarrier does not exhibit cytotoxicity even when administered at high concentration of nanocubes (1g/L of iron) and internalized at high extent (260 pg of iron per cell). We have also implemented the synthesis protocol to decorate the surface of nanocubes with poly(vinylpyridine) polymer and thus prepare pH-responsive shell coated nanocubes.

Design of hybrid nanovehicles for remotely triggered drug release: an overview

This review addresses the advantages of remote triggers, e.g. ultrasounds, near infrared light and alternating magnetic fields, the fabrication of the hybrid nanovehicles, the release mechanisms and the next challenges.

Magnetic nanoparticle clusters for photothermal therapy with near-infrared irradiation

In this study, the photothermal effect of magnetic nanoparticle clusters was firstly reported for the photothermal ablation of tumors both in vitro in cellular systems but also in vivo study. Compared with individual magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs), clustered Fe3O4 NPs can result in a significant increase in the near-infrared (NIR) absorption. Upon NIR irradiation at 808 nm, clustered Fe3O4 NPs inducing higher temperature were more cytotoxic against A549 cells than individual Fe3O4 NPs. We then performed in vivo photothermal therapy (PTT) studies and observed a promising tumor treatment. Compared with PBS and individual magnetic Fe3O4 NPs by NIR irradiation, the clustered Fe3O4 NPs treatment showed a higher therapeutic efficacy. The treatment effects of clustered Fe3O4 NPs with different time of NIR illumination were also evaluated. The result indicated that a sustained high temperature generated by NIR laser with long irradiation time was more effective in killing tumor cells. Furthermore, histological analysis of H&E staining and TUNEL immunohistological assay were further employed for antitumor efficacy assessment of PTT against A549 tumors.