Fermentation of lactose to bio-ethanol by yeasts as part of integrated solutions for the valorisation of cheese whey

Studies on the mechanism of synthesis of ethyl acetate in Kluyveromyces marxianus DSM 5422

Kluyveromyces marxianus converts whey-borne sugar into ethyl acetate, an environmentally friendly solvent with many applications. K. marxianus DSM 5422 presumably synthesizes ethyl acetate from acetyl-SCoA. Iron limitation as a trigger for this synthesis is explained by a diminished aconitase and succinate dehydrogenase activity (both enzymes depend on iron) causing diversion of acetyl-SCoA from the tricarboxic acid cycle to ester synthesis. Copper limitation as another trigger for ester synthesis in this yeast refers to involvement of the electron transport chain (all ETC complexes depend on iron and complex IV requires copper). This hypothesis was checked by using several ETC inhibitors. Malonate was ineffective but carboxin partially inhibited complex II and initiated ester synthesis. Antimycin A and cyanide as complexes III and IV inhibitors initiated ester synthesis only at moderate levels while higher concentrations disrupted all respiration and caused ethanol formation. A restricted supply of oxygen (the terminal electron acceptor) also initiated some ester synthesis but primarily forced ethanol production. A switch from aerobic to anaerobic conditions nearly stopped ester synthesis and induced ethanol formation. Iron-limited ester formation was compared with anaerobic ethanol production; the ester yield was lower than the ethanol yield but a higher market price, a reduced number of process stages, a faster process, and decreased expenses for product recovery by stripping favor biotechnological ester production.

Microbial community structure and dynamics during co-digestion of whey permeate and cow manure in continuous stirred tank reactor systems

Microbial community profiles in two parallel CSTR biogas reactors fed with whey permeate and cow manure were investigated. The operating conditions for these two reactors were identical, yet only one of them (R1) showed stable performance, whereas the other (R2) showed a decrease in methane production accompanied by accumulation of propionic acid and, later, acetic acid. This gave a unique opportunity to study the dynamics of the microbial communities in two biogas reactors apparently operating close to the edge of stability. The microbial community was dominated by Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, and the methanogens Methanobacteriales and Methanomicrobiales in both reactors, but with larger fluctuations in R2. Correlation analyses showed that the depletion of propionic acid in R1 and the late increase of acetic acid in R2 was related to several bacterial groups. The biogas production in R1 shows that stable co-digestion of manure and whey can be achieved with reasonable yields.

Improved bioethanol production in an engineered Kluyveromyces lactis strain shifted from respiratory to fermentative metabolism by deletion of NDI1

In this paper, we report the metabolic engineering of the respiratory yeast Kluyveromyces lactis by construction and characterization of a null mutant (Δklndi1) in the single gene encoding a mitochondrial alternative internal dehydrogenase. Isolated mitochondria of the Δklndi1 mutant show unaffected rate of oxidation of exogenous NADH, but no oxidation of matrix NADH; this confirms that KlNdi1p is the only internal NADH dehydrogenase in K. lactis mitochondria. Permeabilized cells of the Δklndi1 mutant do not show oxidation of matrix NADH, which suggests that shuttle systems to transfer the NADH from mitochondrial matrix to cytosol, for being oxidized by external dehydrogenases, are not functional. The Δklndi1 mutation decreases the chronological life span in absence of nutrients. The expression of KlNDI1 is increased by glutathione reductase depletion. The Δklndi1 mutation shifts the K. lactis metabolism from respiratory to fermentative: the Δklndi1 strain shows reduced respiration rate and increased ethanol production from glucose, while it does not grow in non-fermentable carbon sources such as lactate. The biotechnological benefit of the Δklndi1 mutant for bioethanol production from waste cheese whey lactose was proved.

Development of a hybrid fermentation-enzymatic bioprocess for the production of ethyl lactate from dairy waste

This work explores the potential for the development of a hybrid fermentation-enzymatic process for the production of ethyl lactate from dairy waste. Cheese whey was used in Kluyveromyces marxianus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus batch cultures to produce ethanol and lactic acid respectively. Subsequently, the fermentation products were transferred into an organic phase through liquid-liquid extraction and ethyl lactate was formed in an esterification reaction catalyzed by lipases. The production of ethanol and lactic acid achieved under different conditions was 23gL(-1) and 29gL(-1), respectively. Furthermore, the efficiency of various organic solvents for the esterification reaction was evaluated and toluene was chosen for application in the process. The effect of water content was determined aiming to maximize the product yield and 40mgml(-1) was the optimal enzyme concentration. The bioprocess achieved maximum conversion of 33% constituting a valuable alternative to the application of energy demanding chemically derived methods.

Mixed culture of Kluyveromyces marxianus and Candida krusei for single-cell protein production and organic load removal from whey

The study was conducted to evaluate the potential of mixed culture of Kluyveromyces marxianus and Candida krusei to enhance COD removal efficiency, minimize contamination at extreme conditions (high temperature 40°C and low pH 3.5) during batch and continuous aerobic fermentation and to obtain improved quality single-cell protein (SCP) using whey as substrate. The batch fermentation of mono-culture and mixed culture result showed that the mixed culture resulted in 8.8% higher COD removal efficacy with 19% higher biomass yield and 33% increased productivity. The maximum COD removal 80.2% (including residual protein) was obtained at 24h HRT with biomass productivity of 0.17 g/L/h; however, maximum biomass productivity of 0.38 g/L/h and 34% COD removal were obtained at 6h HRT. The results showed that the mixed culture of acid resistance and thermo-tolerant yeasts was a potential way to produce SCP (animal feed) and simultaneous COD removal under extreme operating conditions.

A novel exopolysaccharide from deep-sea bacterium Zunongwangia profunda SM-A87: low-cost fermentation, moisture retention, and antioxidant activities

Many marine microorganisms can secrete exopolysaccharides (EPSs) which have important applications in biotechnology. We have purified a novel EPS from deep-sea bacterium Zunongwangia profunda SM-A87, identified its glycosyl composition and linkage, and optimized its production to 8.9 g/l in previous studies. To reduce the fermentation cost, an economical fermentation medium containing 60.9 % whey, 10 g/l soybean meal, and 2.9 % NaCl was developed. The EPS yield of batch fermentation in this medium reached 12.1 ± 0.3 g/l. Fed-batch fermentation was conducted and led to an EPS yield of 17.2 ± 0.4 g/l, which represents the highest EPS yield ever reported for a marine bacterium. The EPS was extracted and it displayed good rheological properties, moisture-retention ability, and antioxidant activity. Particularly, its moisture-retention ability is superior to that of other marine bacterial EPSs reported to date. SM-A87 EPS also showed high antioxidant activity. These results suggest that SM-A87 EPS has promising potentials in biotechnology.

Use of cheese whey for biomass production and spray drying of probiotic lactobacilli

The double use of cheese whey (culture medium and thermoprotectant for spray drying of lactobacilli) was explored in this study for adding value to this wastewater. In-house formulated broth (similar to MRS) and dairy media (cheese and ricotta whey and whey permeate) were assessed for their capacity to produce biomass of Lactobacillus paracasei JP1, Lb. rhamnosus 64 and Lb. gasseri 37. Simultaneously, spray drying of cheese whey-starch solution (without lactobacilli cells) was optimised using surface response methodology. Cell suspensions of the lactobacilli, produced in in house-formulated broth, were spray-dried in cheese whey-starch solution and viability monitored throughout the storage of powders for 2 months. Lb. rhamnosus 64 was able to grow satisfactorily in at least two of the in-house formulated culture media and in the dairy media assessed. It also performed well in spray drying. The performance of the other strains was less satisfactory. The growth capacity, the resistance to spray drying in cheese whey-starch solution and the negligible lost in viability during the storage (2 months), makes Lb. rhamnosus 64 a promising candidate for further technological studies for developing a probiotic dehydrated culture for foods, utilising wastewaters of the dairy industry (as growth substrate and protectant) and spray drying (a low-cost widely-available technology).

Hydrogen-producing Escherichia coli strains overexpressing lactose permease: FT-IR analysis of the lactose-induced stress

The lactose permease gene (lacY) was overexpressed in the septuple knockout mutant of Escherichia coli, previously engineered for hydrogen production from glucose. It was expected that raising the lactose transporter activity would elevate the intracellular lactose concentration, inactivate the lactose repressor, induce the lactose operon, and as a result stimulate overall lactose consumption and conversion. However, overexpression of the lactose transporter caused a considerable growth delay in the recombinant strain on lactose, resembling to some extent the "lactose killing" phenomenon. Therefore, the recombinant strain was subjected to selection on lactose-containing media. Selection on plates with 3% lactose yielded a strain with a decreased content of the recombinant plasmid but with an improved ability to grow and produce hydrogen on lactose. Macromolecular analysis of its biomass by means of Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy demonstrated that increase of the cellular polysaccharide content might contribute to the adaptation of E. coli to lactose stress.

Construction of lactose-consuming Saccharomyces cerevisiae for lactose fermentation into ethanol fuel

Two lactose-consuming diploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, AY-51024A and AY-51024M, were constructed by expressing the LAC4 and LAC12 genes of Kluyveromyces marxianus in the host strain AY-5. In AY-51024A, both genes were targeted to the ATH1 and NTH1 gene-encoding regions to abolish the activity of acid/neutral trehalase. In AY-51024M, both genes were respectively integrated into the MIG1 and NTH1 gene-encoding regions to relieve glucose repression. Physiologic studies of the two transformants under anaerobic cultivations in glucose and galactose media indicated that the expression of both LAC genes did not physiologically burden the cells, except for AY-51024A in glucose medium. Galactose consumption was initiated at higher glucose concentrations in the MIG1 deletion strain AY-51024M than in the corresponding wild-type strain and AY-51024A, wherein galactose was consumed until glucose was completely depleted in the mixture. In lactose medium, the Sp. growth rates of AY-51024A and AY-51024M under anaerobic shake-flasks were 0.025 and 0.067 h−1, respectively. The specific lactose uptake rate and ethanol production of AY-51024M were 2.50 g lactose g CDW−1 h−1 and 23.4 g l−1, respectively, whereas those of AY-51024A were 0.98 g lactose g CDW−1 h−1 and 24.3 g lactose g CDW−1 h−1, respectively. In concentrated cheese whey powder solutions, AY-51024M produced 63.3 g l−1 ethanol from approximately 150 g l−1 initial lactose in 120 h, conversely, AY-51024A consumed 63.7 % of the initial lactose and produced 35.9 g l−1 ethanol. Therefore, relieving glucose repression is an effective strategy for constructing lactose-consuming S. cerevisiae.

Identification and assessment of kefir yeast potential for sugar/ethanol-resistance

Biochemical and molecular analysis was used for identification of different kefir yeasts species from Brazil, Canada and the United States of America. The sugar/ethanol-resistant activity of the yeasts was evaluated. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces marxianus had the highest growth rates, suggesting biotechnological applications possible for these strains.

Use of continuous lactose fermentation for ethanol production by Kluveromyces marxianus for verification and extension of a biochemically structured model

A biochemically structured model has been developed to describe the continuous fermentation of lactose to ethanol by Kluveromyces marxianus and allowed metabolic coefficients to be determined. Anaerobic lactose-limited chemostat fermentations at different dilution rates (0.02-0.35h(-1)) were performed. Species specific rates of consumption/formation, as well as yield coefficients were determined. Ethanol yield (0.655 C-mol ethanol(∗)C-mol lactose(-1)) was as high as 98% of theoretical. The modeling procedure allowed calculation of maintenance coefficients for lactose consumption and ethanol production of m(s)=0.6029 and m(e)=0.4218 (C-mol) and (C-molh)(-1), respectively. True yield coefficients for biomass, ethanol and glycerol production were calculated to be Y(true)(sx)=0.114, Y(true)(ex)=0.192 and Y(sg)=2.250 (C-mol) and (C-mol)(-1), respectively. Model calculated maintenance and true yield coefficients agreed very closely with those determined by regressions of the experimental data. The model developed provides a solid basis for the rational design of optimised fermentation of cheese whey.

Fractionation of sulphite spent liquor for biochemical processing using ion exchange resins

Sulphite spent liquor (SSL) is a side product from acidic sulphite pulping of wood, which organic counterpart is composed mainly by lignosulphonates (LS) and sugars. The last are a prominent substrate for the bioprocessing although a previous purification step is necessary to eliminate microbial inhibitors. In this study a fractionation of hardwood SSL (HSSL) has been accomplished employing ion exchange resins in order to separate sugars fraction from concomitant inhibitors: LS, acetic acid, furan derivatives, phenolics, acetic acid and excess of inorganic salts. The fractionation of HSSL has been carried out using two fixed-bed ion exchangers in series (cationic+anionic). The first cation exchange column packed with Dowex 50WX2 resin was able to eliminate free cations and partially separate sugars from high molecular weight LS and furan derivatives. The second anion exchange column packed with Amberlite IRA-96 sorbed remaining LS, phenolics and acetic acid. Overall, the series arrangement under investigation has removed 99.99% of Mg(2+), 99.0% of Ca(2+), 99.6% of LS, and 100% of acetic acid, whereas the yield of recovered sugars was at least 72% of their total amount in HSSL.

Production of bioethanol from effluents of the dairy industry by Kluyveromyces marxianus

Whey and scotta are effluents coming from cheese and ricotta processing respectively. Whey contains minerals, lipids, lactose and proteins; scotta contains mainly lactose. Whey can be reused in several ways, such as protein extraction or animal feeding, while nowadays scotta is just considered as a waste; moreover, due to very high volumes of whey produced in the world, it poses serious environmental and disposal problems. Alternative destinations of these effluents, such as biotechnological transformations, can be a way to reach both goals of improving the added value of the agroindustrial processes and reducing their environmental impact. In this work we investigated the way to produce bioethanol from lactose of whey and scotta and to optimize the fermentation yields. Kluyveromyces marxianus var. marxianus was chosen as lactose-fermenting yeast. Batch, aerobic and anaerobic, fermentations and semicontinuous fermentations in dispersed phase and in packed bed reactor were carried out of row whey, scotta and mix 1:1 whey:scotta at a laboratory scale. Different temperatures (28-40°C) were also tested to check whether the thermotolerance of the chosen yeast could be useful to improve the ethanol yield. The best performances were reached at low temperatures (28°C); high temperatures are also compatible with good ethanol yields in whey fermentations, but not in scotta fermentations. Semicontinuous fermentations in dispersed phase gave the best fermentation performances, particularly with scotta. Then both effluents can be considered suitable for ethanol production. The good yields obtained from scotta allow us to transform this waste in a source.

Cheese whey management: a review

Cheese whey is simultaneously an effluent with nutritional value and a strong organic and saline content. Cheese whey management has been focused in the development of biological treatments without valorization; biological treatments with valorization; physicochemical treatments and direct land application. In the first case, aerobic digestion is reported. In the second case, six main processes are described in the literature: anaerobic digestion, lactose hydrolysis, fermentation to ethanol, hydrogen or lactic acid and direct production of electricity through microbial fuel cells. Thermal and isoelectric precipitation, thermocalcic precipitation, coagulation/flocculation, acid precipitation, electrochemical and membrane technologies have been considered as possible and attractive physicochemical processes to valorize or treat cheese whey. The direct land application is a common and longstanding practice, although some precautions are required. In this review, these different solutions are analyzed. The paper describes the main reactors used, the influence of the main operating variables, the microorganisms or reagents employed and the characterizations of the final effluent principally in terms of chemical oxygen demand. In addition, the experimental conditions and the main results reported in the literature are compiled. Finally, the comparison between the different treatment alternatives and the presentation of potential treatment lines are postulated.

Genetic structure of a novel biofuel-producing microorganism community

Biofuels are an important alternative, renewable source of energy in the face of the ongoing depletion of fossil fuels. Cheese whey is a dairy industry waste characterized by high lactose concentration, which represents a significant environmental problem. Bio-ethanol production by cheese whey could be an effective nonvegetable source for renewable energy production. Here, we report the isolation of a mixed microbial population, able to produce ethanol as main fermentation product from fermenting whey. The microbial consortium has been used to perform a batch fermentation of crude whey in both anoxic and hypoxic conditions. Maximum ethanol concentrations achieved in this study was obtained using the mixed culture in hypoxic conditions, grown at pH 4 and 30 °C, with ethanol production yield of 60 g/L. Our research has pointed out an alternative way to both dispose and valorize cheese whey, a dairy by-product that could cause water pollution and harm to the environment if not properly treated.

Formation of ethyl acetate by Kluyveromyces marxianus on whey during aerobic batch and chemostat cultivation at iron limitation

The ability of Kluyveromyces marxianus to convert lactose into ethyl acetate offers a chance for an economic reuse of whey. Former experiments with K. marxianus DSM 5422 proved limitation of growth by iron (Fe) or copper as a precondition for significant ester synthesis. Several aerobic batch and chemostat cultivations were done with whey-borne media of a variable Fe content for exploring the effect of Fe on growth, the Fe content of biomass, and metabolite synthesis. At low Fe doses, Fe was the growth-limiting factor, the available Fe was completely absorbed by the yeasts, and the biomass formation linearly depended on the Fe dose governed by a minimum Fe content in the yeasts, x (Fe,min). At batch conditions, x (Fe,min) was 8.8 μg/g, while during chemostat cultivation at D = 0.15 h(-1), it was 23 μg/g. At high Fe doses, sugar was the growth-limiting factor, Fe was more or less absorbed, and the formed biomass became constant. Significant amounts of ethyl acetate were only formed at Fe limitation while high Fe doses suppressed ester formation. Analysis of formed metabolites such as glycerol, pyruvate, acetate, ethanol, ethyl acetate, isocitrate, 2-oxoglutarate, succinate, and malate during chemostat cultivation allowed some interpretation of the Fe-dependent mechanism of ester synthesis; formation of ethyl acetate from acetyl-SCoA and ethanol is obviously initiated by a diminished metabolic flux of acetyl-SCoA into the citrate cycle and by a limited oxidation of NADH in the respiratory chain since Fe is required for the function of aconitase, succinate dehydrogenase, and the electron-transferring proteins.

Formation of ethyl acetate by Kluyveromyces marxianus on whey during aerobic batch cultivation at specific trace element limitation

Kluyveromyces marxianus is able to transform lactose into ethyl acetate as a bulk product which offers a chance for an economical reuse of whey-borne sugar. Ethyl acetate is highly volatile and allows its process-integrated recovery by stripping from the aerated bioreactor. Extensive formation of ethyl acetate by K. marxianus DSM 5422 required restriction of yeast growth by a lack of trace elements. Several aerobic batch processes were done in a 1-L stirred reactor using whey-borne culture medium supplemented with an individual trace element solution excluding Mn, Mo, Fe, Cu, or Zn for identifying the trace element(s) crucial for the observed ester synthesis. Only a lack of Fe, Cu, or Zn restricted yeast growth while exclusion of Mn and Mo did not exhibit any effect due to a higher amount of the latter in the used whey. Limitation of growth by Fe or Cu caused significant production of ethyl acetate while limitation by Zn resulted in formation of ethanol. A lack of Fe or Cu obviously makes the respiratory chain inefficient resulting in an increased mitochondrial NADH level followed by a reduced metabolic flux of acetyl-SCoA into the citrate cycle. Synthesis of ethyl acetate from acetyl-SCoA and ethanol by alcoholysis is thus interpreted as an overflow metabolism.

Role of dissolved oxygen availability on lactobionic acid production from whey by Pseudomonas taetrolens

The influence of dissolved oxygen availability on cell growth and lactobionic acid production from whey by Pseudomonas taetrolens has been investigated for the first time. Results from pH-shift bioreactor cultivations have shown that high agitation rate schemes stimulated cell growth, increased pH-shift values and the oxygen uptake rate by cells, whereas lactobionic acid production was negatively affected. Conversely, higher aeration rates than 1.5 Lpm neither stimulated cell growth nor lactobionic acid production (22% lower for an aeration rate of 2 Lpm). Overall insights into bioprocess performance enabled the implementation of 350 rpm as the optimal agitation strategy during cultivation, which increased lactobionic productivity 1.2-fold (0.58-0.7 g/Lh) compared to that achieved at 1000 rpm. Oxygen supply has been shown to be a key bioprocess parameter for enhanced overall efficiency of the system, representing essential information for the implementation of lactobionic acid production at a large scale.

Efficient lactobionic acid production from whey by Pseudomonas taetrolens under pH-shift conditions

Lactobionic acid finds applications in the fields of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and medicine. The production of lactobionic acid from whey by Pseudomonas taetrolens was studied in shake-flasks and in a bioreactor. Shake-flask experiments showed that lactobionic acid was a non-growth associated product. A two-stage pH-shift bioconversion strategy with a pH-uncontrolled above 6.5 during the growth phase and maintained at 6.5 during cumulative production was adopted in bioreactor batch cultures. An inoculation level of 30% promoted high cell culture densities that triggered lactobionic acid production at a rate of 1.12 g/Lh. This methodology displayed efficient bioconversion with cheese whey as an inexpensive substrate for lactobionic acid production.

Utilization of residues from agro-forest industries in the production of high value bacterial cellulose

Bacterial cellulose (BC), a very peculiar form of cellulose, is gaining considerable importance due to its unique properties. In this study, several residues, from agro-forestry industries, namely grape skins aqueous extract, cheese whey, crude glycerol and sulfite pulping liquor were evaluated as economic carbon and nutrient sources for the production of BC. The most relevant BC amounts attained with the residues from the wine and pulp industries were 0.6 and 0.3 g/L, respectively, followed by biodiesel crude residue and cheese whey with productions of about, 0.1 g/L after 96 h of incubation. Preliminary results on the addition of other nutrient sources (yeast extract, nitrogen and phosphate) to the residues-based culture media indicated that, in general, these BC productions could be increased by ~200% and ~100% for the crude glycerol and grape skins, respectively, after the addition organic or inorganic nitrogen.

Fermentative production of ribonucleotides from whey by Kluyveromyces marxianus: effect of temperature and pH

Ribonucleotides have shown many promising applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. The aim of the present study was to produce ribonucleotides (RNA) by Kluyveromyces marxianus ATCC 8,554 utilizing cheese whey, a dairy industry waste, as a main substrate under batch fermentation conditions. The effects of temperature, pH, aeration rate, agitation and initial cellular concentration were studied simultaneously through factorial design for RNA, biomass production and lactose consumption. The maximum RNA production (28.66 mg/g of dry biomass) was observed at temperature 30°C, pH 5.0 and 1 g/l of initial cellular concentration after 2 h of fermentation. Agitation and aeration rate did not influence on RNA concentration (p > 0.05). Maximum lactose consumption (98.7%) and biomass production (6.0 g/l) was observed after 12 h of incubation. This study proves that cheese whey can be used as an adequate medium for RNA production by K. marxianus under the optimized conditions at industrial scale.