151
|
Dudvarski Stankovic N, Teodorczyk M, Ploen R, Zipp F, Schmidt MHH. Microglia-blood vessel interactions: a double-edged sword in brain pathologies. Acta Neuropathol 2016; 131:347-63. [PMID: 26711460 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-015-1524-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are long-living resident immune cells of the brain, which secure a stable chemical and physical microenvironment necessary for the proper functioning of the central nervous system (CNS). These highly dynamic cells continuously scan their environment for pathogens and possess the ability to react to damage-induced signals in order to protect the brain. Microglia, together with endothelial cells (ECs), pericytes and astrocytes, form the functional blood-brain barrier (BBB), a specialized endothelial structure that selectively separates the sensitive brain parenchyma from blood circulation. Microglia are in bidirectional and permanent communication with ECs and their perivascular localization enables them to survey the influx of blood-borne components into the CNS. Furthermore, they may stimulate the opening of the BBB, extravasation of leukocytes and angiogenesis. However, microglia functioning requires tight control as their dysregulation is implicated in the initiation and progression of numerous neurological diseases. Disruption of the BBB, changes in blood flow, introduction of pathogens in the sensitive CNS niche, insufficient nutrient supply, and abnormal secretion of cytokines or expression of endothelial receptors are reported to prime and attract microglia. Such reactive microglia have been reported to even escalate the damage of the brain parenchyma as is the case in ischemic injuries, brain tumors, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. In this review, we present the current state of the art of the causes and mechanisms of pathological interactions between microglia and blood vessels and explore the possibilities of targeting those dysfunctional interactions for the development of future therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nevenka Dudvarski Stankovic
- Molecular Signal Transduction Laboratories, Institute for Microscopic Anatomy and Neurobiology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn²), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany.
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Marcin Teodorczyk
- Molecular Signal Transduction Laboratories, Institute for Microscopic Anatomy and Neurobiology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn²), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Robert Ploen
- Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn²), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Frauke Zipp
- Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn²), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Mirko H H Schmidt
- Molecular Signal Transduction Laboratories, Institute for Microscopic Anatomy and Neurobiology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn²), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany.
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
152
|
Dzamko N, Rowe DB, Halliday GM. Increased peripheral inflammation in asymptomatic leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutation carriers. Mov Disord 2016; 31:889-97. [PMID: 26917005 DOI: 10.1002/mds.26529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We aimed to determine if peripheral or central inflammatory cytokines are altered in healthy subjects carrying a leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) G2019S mutation, and thus genetically at risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). We also aimed to identify differences in inflammatory cytokines between LRRK2 G2019S-associated and idiopathic PD once the disease manifests. METHODS Participants were genetically screened and phenotyped, and biological samples were collected and stored by the Michael J. Fox Foundation LRRK2 Cohort Consortium. Serum samples and matching clinical data were obtained from 71 asymptomatic LRRK2 G2019S mutation carriers (CSF n = 25), 75 neurologically normal controls (CSF n = 22), 75 idiopathic PD patients (CSF n = 29), and 76 PD patients with a LRRK2 G2019S mutation (CSF n = 20). Inflammatory cytokines were measured using multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. RESULTS Serum levels of interleukin 1 beta could discriminate asymptomatic LRRK2 G2019S mutation carriers from controls, with a high inflammatory subgroup of carriers identified. This subgroup was significantly higher in a number of PD-implicated pro-inflammatory cytokines. Once PD had manifest, LRRK2 G2019S patients were discriminated from idiopathic PD by higher serum platelet-derived growth factor, and higher CSF vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin 8. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that peripheral inflammation is higher in a percentage of subjects carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Replication and longitudinal follow-up is required to determine whether the increased peripheral cytokines can predict clinical PD. Importantly, these biological changes were observed prior to the clinical manifestations thought to herald PD. © 2016 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Australia
| | - Dominic B Rowe
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Australia
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
153
|
Langston RG, Rudenko IN, Cookson MR. The function of orthologues of the human Parkinson's disease gene LRRK2 across species: implications for disease modelling in preclinical research. Biochem J 2016; 473:221-32. [PMID: 26811536 PMCID: PMC5165698 DOI: 10.1042/bj20150985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the period since LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) was identified as a causal gene for late-onset autosomal dominant parkinsonism, a great deal of work has been aimed at understanding whether the LRRK2 protein might be a druggable target for Parkinson's disease (PD). As part of this effort, animal models have been developed to explore both the normal and the pathophysiological roles of LRRK2. However, LRRK2 is part of a wider family of proteins whose functions in different organisms remain poorly understood. In this review, we compare the information available on biochemical properties of LRRK2 homologues and orthologues from different species from invertebrates (e.g. Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster) to mammals. We particularly discuss the mammalian LRRK2 homologue, LRRK1, and those species where there is only a single LRRK homologue, discussing examples where each of the LRRK family of proteins has distinct properties as well as those cases where there appear to be functional redundancy. We conclude that uncovering the function of LRRK2 orthologues will help to elucidate the key properties of human LRRK2 as well as to improve understanding of the suitability of different animal models for investigation of LRRK2-related PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah G. Langston
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Iakov N. Rudenko
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Mark R. Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| |
Collapse
|
154
|
Figueiredo-Pereira ME, Corwin C, Babich J. Prostaglandin J2: a potential target for halting inflammation-induced neurodegeneration. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2016; 1363:125-37. [PMID: 26748744 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Prostaglandins (PGs) are produced via cyclooxygenases, which are enzymes that play a major role in neuroinflammation. Epidemiological studies show that chronic treatment with low levels of cyclooxygenase inhibitors (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)) lowers the risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) by as much as 50%. Unfortunately, inhibiting cyclooxygenases with NSAIDs blocks the synthesis of downstream neuroprotective and neurotoxic PGs, thus producing adverse side effects. We focus on prostaglandin J2 (PGJ2) because it is highly neurotoxic compared to PGA1, D2, and E2. Unlike other PGs, PGJ2 and its metabolites have a cyclopentenone ring with reactive α,β-unsaturated carbonyl groups that form covalent Michael adducts with key cysteines in proteins and GSH. Cysteine-binding electrophiles such as PGJ2 are considered to play an important role in determining whether neurons will live or die. We discuss in vitro and in vivo studies showing that PGJ2 induces pathological processes relevant to neurodegenerative disorders such as AD and PD. Further, we discuss our work showing that increasing intracellular cAMP with the lipophilic peptide PACAP27 counteracts some of the PGJ2-induced detrimental effects. New therapeutic strategies that neutralize the effects of specific neurotoxic PGs downstream from cyclooxygenases could have a significant impact on the treatment of chronic neurodegenerative disorders with fewer adverse side effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Chuhyon Corwin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College and the Graduate Center, CUNY, New York, New York
| | - John Babich
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
| |
Collapse
|
155
|
Hasegawa S, Goto S, Tsuji H, Okuno T, Asahara T, Nomoto K, Shibata A, Fujisawa Y, Minato T, Okamoto A, Ohno K, Hirayama M. Intestinal Dysbiosis and Lowered Serum Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Protein in Parkinson's Disease. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142164. [PMID: 26539989 PMCID: PMC4634857 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The intestine is one of the first affected organs in Parkinson’s disease (PD). PD subjects show abnormal staining for Escherichia coli and α-synuclein in the colon. Methods We recruited 52 PD patients and 36 healthy cohabitants. We measured serum markers and quantified the numbers of 19 fecal bacterial groups/genera/species by quantitative RT-PCR of 16S or 23S rRNA. Although the six most predominant bacterial groups/genera/species covered on average 71.3% of total intestinal bacteria, our analysis was not comprehensive compared to metagenome analysis or 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Results In PD, the number of Lactobacillus was higher, while the sum of analyzed bacteria, Clostridium coccoides group, and Bacteroides fragilis group were lower than controls. Additionally, the sum of putative hydrogen-producing bacteria was lower in PD. A linear regression model to predict disease durations demonstrated that C. coccoides group and Lactobacillus gasseri subgroup had the largest negative and positive coefficients, respectively. As a linear regression model to predict stool frequencies showed that these bacteria were not associated with constipation, changes in these bacteria were unlikely to represent worsening of constipation in the course of progression of PD. In PD, the serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein levels were lower than controls, while the levels of serum diamine oxidase, a marker for intestinal mucosal integrity, remained unchanged in PD. Conclusions The permeability to LPS is likely to be increased without compromising the integrity of intestinal mucosa in PD. The increased intestinal permeability in PD may make the patients susceptible to intestinal dysbiosis. Conversely, intestinal dysbiosis may lead to the increased intestinal permeability. One or both of the two mechanisms may be operational in development and progression of PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Hasegawa
- Department of Pathophysiological Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Sae Goto
- Department of Pathophysiological Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | | | - Tatsuya Okuno
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | | | | | - Akihide Shibata
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yoshiro Fujisawa
- Department of Pathophysiological Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Tomomi Minato
- Department of Pathophysiological Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Akira Okamoto
- Department of School Health Sciences, Aichi University of Education, Kariya, Japan
| | - Kinji Ohno
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
- * E-mail: (MH); (KO)
| | - Masaaki Hirayama
- Department of Pathophysiological Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
- * E-mail: (MH); (KO)
| |
Collapse
|
156
|
McCann H, Cartwright H, Halliday GM. Neuropathology of α-synuclein propagation and braak hypothesis. Mov Disord 2015; 31:152-60. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.26421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Glenda M. Halliday
- Neuroscience Research Australia; Sydney Australia
- University of New South Wales; Sydney Australia
| |
Collapse
|
157
|
Herrero MT, Estrada C, Maatouk L, Vyas S. Inflammation in Parkinson's disease: role of glucocorticoids. Front Neuroanat 2015; 9:32. [PMID: 25883554 PMCID: PMC4382972 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2015.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is a major characteristic feature of Parkinson's disease (PD). Studies in PD patients show evidence of augmented levels of potent pro-inflammatory molecules e.g., TNF-α, iNOS, IL-1β whereas in experimental Parkinsonism it has been consistently demonstrated that dopaminergic neurons are particularly vulnerable to activated glia releasing these toxic factors. Recent genetic studies point to the role of immune system in the etiology of PD, thus in combination with environmental factors, both peripheral and CNS-mediated immune responses could play important roles in onset and progression of PD. Whereas microglia, astrocytes and infiltrating T cells are known to mediate chronic inflammation, the roles of other immune-competent cells are less well understood. Inflammation is a tightly controlled process. One major effector system of regulation is HPA axis. Glucocorticoids (GCs) released from adrenal glands upon stimulation of HPA axis, in response to either cell injury or presence of pathogen, activate their receptor, GR. GR regulates inflammation both through direct transcriptional action on target genes and by indirectly inhibiting transcriptional activities of transcriptional factors such as NF-κB, AP-1 or interferon regulatory factors. In PD patients, the HPA axis is unbalanced and the cortisol levels are significantly increased, implying a deregulation of GR function in immune cells. In experimental Parkinsonism, the activation of microglial GR has a crucial effect in diminishing microglial cell activation and reducing dopaminergic degeneration. Moreover, GCs are also known to regulate human brain vasculature as well as blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability, any dysfunction in their actions may influence infiltration of cytotoxic molecules resulting in increased vulnerability of dopamine neurons in PD. Overall, deregulation of glucocorticoid receptor actions is likely important in dopamine neuron degeneration through establishment of chronic inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María-Trinidad Herrero
- Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience (NiCE-IMIB), Institute for Bio-Health Research of Murcia, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia Murcia, Spain
| | - Cristina Estrada
- Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience (NiCE-IMIB), Institute for Bio-Health Research of Murcia, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia Murcia, Spain
| | - Layal Maatouk
- Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Adaptive Behaviors, Department of Neuroscience Paris Seine, INSERM U 1130, CNRS UMR 8246, UPMC UM 119, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| | - Sheela Vyas
- Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Adaptive Behaviors, Department of Neuroscience Paris Seine, INSERM U 1130, CNRS UMR 8246, UPMC UM 119, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|