Electrochemical immunosensors for the simultaneous detection of two tumor markers

Moving cancer diagnostics from bench to bedside

To improve treatment and reduce the mortality from cancer, a key task is to detect the disease as early as possible. To achieve this, many new technologies have been developed for biomarker discovery and validation. This review provides an overview of omics technologies in biomarker discovery and cancer detection, and highlights recent applications and future trends in cancer diagnostics. Although the present omic methods are not ready for immediate clinical use as diagnostic tools, it can be envisaged that simple, fast, robust, portable and cost-effective clinical diagnosis systems could be available in near future, for home and bedside use.

Automated 10-channel capillary chip immunodetector for biological agents detection

The automated 10-channel capillary chip immunodetector (10K-IDWG) is a prototype, which has been developed for automatically operated biological agents (BA) point detection. The current technology uses a chemiluminescence capillary immunoassay (EIA) technique in combination with integrated microfluidics and allows the highly sensitive and rapid detection and preliminary identification of multiple BA in aqueous solutions in the laboratory. The chemiluminescence capillary EIA are performed within a disposable capillary chip containing 10 fused-silica capillaries arranged in parallel coated with selected capture antibodies. A multianode-photomultiplier array is used to detect chemiluminescence intensity in each capillary. Reservoirs for reagents and buffers and a waste disposal reservoir are integrated. This paper describes the technology of the 10K-IDWG and its evaluation with three different BA, the toxin staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), the bacterial analyte Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157:H7 as a model for bacterial pathogens, and the bacteriophage M13 as a model for virus pathogens. The 10K-IDWG is able to detect the above mentioned three BA in an aqueous sample within 29 min (single analyte-detection and multiplexing). Limits of detection (LOD) are 0.1 ng/ml for SEB, 10(4)cfu/ml for E. coli O157:H7, and 5x10(5) pfu/ml for M13. Cross reactivities between the three assays were not observed.

Development of a “Membrane Cloaking” Method for Amperometric Enzyme Immunoassay and Surface Plasmon Resonance Analysis of Proteins in Serum Samples

Detection of trace amounts of target proteins in the presence of high concentrations of matrix proteins (e.g., serum samples) without separation steps is of great significance to biomedical research but remains technically challenging. Here we report a "membrane cloaking" method to overcome nonspecific protein adsorption and fouling problems for label-free surface plasmon resonance detection and heterogeneous immunosensing. A thin, hybrid, self-assembled monolayer on gold was formed with 70 mol % mercaptopropanol and 30 mol % cysteamine/propanedithiol to facilitate membrane fusion and covalent attachment of antibodies. After antibody immobilization, the surface was incubated with lipid vesicles, which fused to form a supported membrane. The analyte spiked in serum was introduced for binding, and the membrane and nonspecifically adsorbed proteins on the membrane were subsequently removed using a nonionic surfactant before the final measurement was carried out. Selection of a suitable surfactant can preserve antibody/antigen binding and selectively remove the membrane, allowing accurate measurement of the captured proteins without interference from nonspecifically adsorbed species. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) quantification of IgG spiked in undiluted serum ( approximately 75 mg/mL protein) was achieved with the membrane cloaking method, whereas direct measurement without membrane removal resulted in a significantly large error. The cloaking method was also used to develop an enzyme amplified amperometric assay using HRP-conjugated IgG. Detection of concentrations as low as 5 fM proteins was obtained. Finally, a membrane cloaking assay combining SPR and in situ electrochemical measurement was demonstrated on a gold substrate. Similar sensitivity was observed using a continuous flow injection measurement. The method opens new avenues to develop direct assay methods with ultrahigh sensitivity for protein samples using SPR and enzyme-linked amplification mechanisms.

Neurotrophin-eluting hydrogel coatings for neural stimulating electrodes

Improved sensory and motor prostheses for the central nervous system will require large numbers of electrodes with low electrical thresholds for neural excitation. With the eventual goal of reducing stimulation thresholds, we have investigated the use of biodegradable, neurotrophin-eluting hydrogels (i.e., poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic acid), PEGPLA) as a means of attracting neurites to the surface of stimulating electrodes. PEGPLA hydrogels with release rates ranging from 1.5 to 3 weeks were synthesized. These hydrogels were applied to multielectrode arrays with sputtered iridium oxide charge-injection sites. The coatings had little impact on the iridium oxide electrochemical properties, including charge storage capacity, impedance, and voltage transients during current pulsing. Additionally, we quantitatively examined the ability of neurotrophin-eluting, PEGPLA hydrogels to promote neurite extension in vitro using a PC12 cell culture model. Hydrogels released neurotrophin (nerve growth factor, NGF) for at least 1 week, with neurite extension near that of an NGF positive control and much higher than extension seen from sham, bovine serum albumin-releasing boluses, and a negative control. These results show that neurotrophin-eluting hydrogels can be applied to multielectrode arrays, and suggest a method to improve neuron-electrode proximity, which could result in lowered electrical stimulation thresholds. Reduced thresholds support the creation of smaller electrode structures and high density electrode prostheses, greatly enhancing prosthesis control and function.

A tris(2,2′-bipyridyl)cobalt(III)-bovine serum albumin composite membrane for biosensors

A concept based on a novel redox-biocompatible composite protein membrane fabrication, double enzyme membrane modification technique and antibody immobilization, was exploited to develop a highly sensitive amperometric enzyme immunosensor for detection of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). In this concept, a solution of bovine serum albumin (BSA) containing horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is coated on the gold electrode in such a way that the first enzyme membrane is achieved. Then tris(2,2'-bipyridyl) cobalt(III) (Co(bpy)(3)3+), as a mediator, was embedded in BSA-HRP composite membrane vis the electrostatic force and hydrophobe functions. Later a self-assembled conductive nano-Au monolayer was constructed onto the resultant electrode surface by electrostatic interaction between the negatively charged nano-Au and positively charged Co(bpy)3(3+). Protein A is used as a binding material to achieve an adjusted (but not random) orientation of the antibodies surface for efficient combination of antigens. Finally, the HRP, was employed to block the possible remaining active sites and avoid the non-specific adsorption, which acts not only as a blocking reagent instead of the commonly used BSA but also as the conventional enzyme-labeling to amplify the response of the antigen-antibody reaction. The immunosensor constructed with the double layer biocatalytic HRP membranes and the desirable Co(bpy)(3)3+/BSA redox-biocompatible composite membrane performed high sensitivity and a wide linear response to CEA in the range of 0.50-80.00 ng/mL with a limit of detection of 0.14 ng/mL, as well as good stability and long-term life.

Carbon nanotube amplification strategies for highly sensitive immunodetection of cancer biomarkers

We describe herein the combination of electrochemical immunosensors using single-wall carbon nanotube (SWNT) forest platforms with multi-label secondary antibody-nanotube bioconjugates for highly sensitive detection of a cancer biomarker in serum and tissue lysates. Greatly amplified sensitivity was attained by using bioconjugates featuring horseradish peroxidase (HRP) labels and secondary antibodies (Ab(2)) linked to carbon nanotubes (CNT) at high HRP/Ab(2) ratio. This approach provided a detection limit of 4 pg mL(-)(1) (100 amol mL(-)(1)), for prostate specific antigen (PSA) in 10 microL of undiluted calf serum, a mass detection limit of 40 fg. Accurate detection of PSA in human serum samples was demonstrated by comparison to standard ELISA assays. PSA was quantitatively measured in prostate tissue samples for which PSA could not be differentiated by the gold standard immunohistochemical staining method. These easily fabricated SWNT immunosensors show excellent promise for clinical screening of cancer biomarkers and point-of-care diagnostics.

Sequential analysis of multiple analytes using a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor

A sequential analysis method for the analysis of two analytes was developed using a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor. A sample with both analytes was introduced into the single sensing region and then each analyte was analyzed sequentially. Two detection models were devised for the samples with the following composition: (1) one target analyte resulting in a sensor response without any label and the other analyte with only additional label, (2) both target analytes requiring additional labels for detection. A standard curve for each model was prepared and applied for sequential analysis of anti-bovine serum albumin (anti-BSA) antibodies and horseradish peroxidase (HRP). The errors of the sequential analysis of Models 1 and 2 were found to be less than 6%, and this method was therefore acceptable for application. No cross-reaction arising from non-specific binding among the participating antigens and antibodies was shown to occur in Models 1 and 2. For optimization of the analyte binding capacity of immunoaffinity (IA), the concentration ratio of the molecular recognition element at the immobilization step was adjusted. Subsequently, from the measurement of the maximum sensor response (R(max)), optimization of the analyte binding capacity could be made. Using Model 2, the feasibility of sequential analysis was demonstrated by detecting levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and human albumin (hA) in healthy human urine, since both proteins are known to be related to abortion and preterm delivery during early pregnancy.

Enzymatically-generated fluorescent detection in micro-channels with internal magnetic mixing for the development of parallel microfluidic ELISA

The Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay, or ELISA, is commonly utilized to quantify small concentrations of specific proteins for a large variety of purposes, ranging from medical diagnosis to environmental analysis and food safety. However, this technique requires large volumes of costly reagents and long incubation periods. The use of microfluidics permits one to specifically address these drawbacks by decreasing both the volume and the distance of diffusion inside the micro-channels. Existing microfluidic systems are limited by the necessary control of extremely low flow rates to provide sufficient time for the molecules to interact with each other by diffusion only. In this paper, we describe a new microfluidic design for the realization of parallel ELISA in stop-flow conditions. Magnetic beads were used both as a solid phase to support the formation of the reactive immune complex and to achieve a magnetic mixing inside the channels. In order to test the detection procedure, the formation of the immune complex was performed off-chip before the reactive beads were injected into the reaction chamber. Anti-streptavidin antibodies were quantified with low picomolar sensitivity (0.1-6.7 pM), a linear range of 2 orders of magnitude and good reproducibility. This work represents the first step toward a new platform for simple, highly effective and parallel microfluidic ELISA.

Redox Enzymes Immobilized on Electrodes with Solution Cosubstrates. General Procedure for Simulation of Time-Resolved Catalytic Responses

In view of the existing and potential applications of electrochemical enzymatic catalysis with redox enzymes immobilized on the electrode surface in biosensors, a numerical calculation procedure for simulating their cyclic voltammetric responses is presented. It is applicable to systems involving a redox cosubstrate in solution. The cosubstrates, substrates, products, and inhibitors are assumed to diffuse linearly (planar electrode) between the electrode and the solution. The reactions in which the various forms of the immobilized enzyme participate may be as numerous and intricate as required by the simulation with no other restriction than the computing time. They may, at will, follow or not follow Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Slow charge-transfer cosubstrates are treated in the framework of Butler-Volmer kinetic law.

An electrochemical immunosensor using ferrocenyl-tethered dendrimer

We report here an enzyme-amplified, sandwich-type immunosensor for detecting the biospecific interaction between an antibody and antigen using redox mediation. We employed biotin/anti-biotin IgG as a model immunosensing pair. Partially ferrocenyl-tethered dendrimer (Fc-D), whose ferrocene moiety acts as a redox mediator, was immobilized to the electrode surface by covalent binding between the dendrimer amines and the carboxylic acids of a self-assembled monolayer. The unreacted amines of the immobilized Fc-D were modified with biotin groups to allow the specific binding of goat anti-biotin IgG. Rabbit anti-goat IgG-conjugated alkaline phosphatase was bound to goat anti-biotin IgG to catalyze conversion of p-aminophenyl phosphate monohydrate to p-aminophenol. This product is oxidized to quinoimide by the reduction of ferrocenium back to ferrocene, producing an electrocatalytic anodic current. Cyclic voltammograms and surface plasmon resonance experiments showed that the binding of nonspecific proteins is not significant on the biotinylated Fc-D surface. We also examined the change in peak current according to the concentration of anti-biotin IgG and found that the detection range of this immunosensing scheme is between 0.1 and 30 microg mL(-1).

Electrochemical biosensors: towards point-of-care cancer diagnostics

Wide-scale point-of-care diagnostic systems hold great promise for early detection of cancer at a curable stage of the disease. This review discusses the prospects and challenges of electrochemical biosensors for next-generation cancer diagnostics. Electrochemical biosensors have played an important significant role in the transition towards point-of-care diagnostic devices. Such electrical devices are extremely useful for delivering the diagnostic information in a fast, simple, and low cost fashion in connection to compact (hand-held) analyzers. Modern electrochemical bioaffinity sensors, such as DNA- or immunosensors, offer remarkable sensitivity essential for early cancer detection. The coupling of electrochemical devices with nanoscale materials offers a unique multiplexing capability for simultaneous measurements of multiple cancer markers. The attractive properties of electrochemical devices are extremely promising for improving the efficiency of cancer diagnostics and therapy monitoring. With further development and resources, such portable devices are expected to speed up the diagnosis of cancer, making analytical results available at patient bedside or physician office within few minutes.