Riboswitches: discovery of drugs that target bacterial gene-regulatory RNAs

Basis for ligand discrimination between ON and OFF state riboswitch conformations: the case of the SAM-I riboswitch

Riboswitches are RNA elements that bind to effector ligands and control gene expression. Most consist of two domains. S-Adenosyl Methionine (SAM) binds the aptamer domain of the SAM-I riboswitch and induces conformational changes in the expression domain to form an intrinsic terminator (transcription OFF state). Without SAM the riboswitch forms the transcription ON state, allowing read-through transcription. The mechanistic link between the SAM/aptamer recognition event and subsequent secondary structure rearrangement by the riboswitch is unclear. We probed for those structural features of the Bacillus subtilis yitJ SAM-I riboswitch responsible for discrimination between the ON and OFF states by SAM. We designed SAM-I riboswitch RNA segments forming "hybrid" structures of the ON and OFF states. The choice of segment constrains the formation of a partial P1 helix, characteristic of the OFF state, together with a partial antiterminator (AT) helix, characteristic of the ON state. For most choices of P1 vs. AT helix lengths, SAM binds with micromolar affinity according to equilibrium dialysis. Mutational analysis and in-line probing confirm that the mode of SAM binding by hybrid structures is similar to that of the aptamer. Altogether, binding measurements and in-line probing are consistent with the hypothesis that when SAM is present, stacking interactions with the AT helix stabilize a partially formed P1 helix in the hybrids. Molecular modeling indicates that continuous stacking between the P1 and the AT helices is plausible with SAM bound. Our findings raise the possibility that conformational intermediates may play a role in ligand-induced aptamer folding.

Microscopic rearrangement of bound minor groove binders detected by NMR

Thermodynamic and structural studies are commonly utilized to optimize small molecules for specific DNA interactions, and, thus, a significant amount of binding data is available. However, the dynamic processes that are involved in minor groove complex formation and maintenance are not fully understood. To help define the processes involved, we have conducted 1D and 2D NMR in conjunction with biosensor-SPR experiments with a variety of compounds and symmetric, as well as asymmetric, AT tract DNA sequences. Surprisingly, the NMR data clearly show exchange between equivalent binding sites for strongly binding compounds like netropsin and DB921 (Ka > 10(8) M(-1)) that does not involve dissociation off the DNA. A quantitative analysis of the data revealed that these bound exchange rates are indeed much faster than the macroscopic dissociation rates which were independently determined by biosensor-SPR. Additionally, we could show the existence of at least two 1:1 compound DNA complexes at the same site for the interaction of these compounds with an asymmetric DNA sequence. To explain this behavior we introduced a model in which the ligand is rapidly flipping between two orientations while in close association with the DNA. The ligand reorientation will contribute favorably to the binding entropy. As the potential of minor groove binders to form more than a single complex with asymmetric, as well as symmetric, duplexes is widely unknown, the consequences for binding thermodynamics and compound design are discussed.

Atomic-level insights into metabolite recognition and specificity of the SAM-II riboswitch

Although S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), a metabolic by-product of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), differs from SAM only by a single methyl group and an overall positive charge, SAH binds the SAM-II riboswitch with more than 1000-fold less affinity than SAM. Using atomistic molecular dynamics simulations, we investigated the molecular basis of such high selectivity in ligand recognition by SAM-II riboswitch. The biosynthesis of SAM exclusively generates the (S,S) stereoisomer, and (S,S)-SAM can spontaneously convert to the (R,S) form. We, therefore, also examined the effects of (R,S)-SAM binding to SAM-II and its potential biological function. We find that the unfavorable loss in entropy in SAM-II binding is greater for (S,S)- and (R,S)-SAM than SAH, which is compensated by stabilizing electrostatic interactions with the riboswitch. The positively charged sulfonium moiety on SAM acts as the crucial anchor point responsible for the formation of key ionic interactions as it fits favorably in the negatively charged binding pocket. In contrast, SAH, with its lone pair of electrons on the sulfur, experiences repulsion in the binding pocket of SAM-II and is enthalpically destabilized. In the presence of SAH, similar to the unbound riboswitch, the pseudoknot structure of SAM-II is not completely formed, thus exposing the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. Unlike SAM, this may further facilitate ribosomal assembly and translation initiation. Our analysis of the conformational ensemble sampled by SAM-II in the absence of ligands and when bound to SAM or SAH reveals that ligand binding follows a combination of conformational selection and induced-fit mechanisms.

Recent advances in developing small molecules targeting RNA

RNAs are underexploited targets for small molecule drugs or chemical probes of function. This may be due, in part, to a fundamental lack of understanding of the types of small molecules that bind RNA specifically and the types of RNA motifs that specifically bind small molecules. In this review, we describe recent advances in the development and design of small molecules that bind to RNA and modulate function that aim to fill this void.

Challenges and opportunities for small molecule aptamer development

Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides that bind to targets with high affinity and selectivity. Their use as molecular recognition elements has emerged as a viable approach for biosensing, diagnostics, and therapeutics. Despite this potential, relatively few aptamers exist that bind to small molecules. Small molecules are important targets for investigation due to their diverse biological functions as well as their clinical and commercial uses. Novel, effective molecular recognition probes for these compounds are therefore of great interest. This paper will highlight the technical challenges of aptamer development for small molecule targets, as well as the opportunities that exist for their application in biosensing and chemical biology.

Functional roles of a tetraloop/receptor interacting module in a cyclic di-GMP riboswitch

Riboswitches are a class of structural RNAs that regulate transcription and translation through specific recognition of small molecules. Riboswitches are attractive not only as drug targets for novel antibiotics but also as modular tools for controlling gene expression. Sequence comparison of a class of riboswitches that sense cyclic di-GMP (type-I c-di-GMP riboswitches) revealed that this type of riboswitch frequently shows a GAAA loop/receptor interaction between P1 and P3 elements. In the crystal structures of a type-I c-di-GMP riboswitch from Vibrio cholerae (the Vc2 riboswitch), the GNRA loop/receptor interaction assembled P2 and P3 stems to organize a ligand-binding pocket. In this study, the functional importance of the GAAA loop-receptor interaction in the Vc2 riboswitch was examined. A series of variant Vc2 riboswitches with mutations in the GAAA loop/receptor interaction were assayed for their switching abilities. In mutants with mutations in the P2 GAAA loop, expression of the reporter gene was reduced to approximately 40% - 60% of that in the wild-type. However, mutants in which the P3 receptor motif was substituted with base pairs were as active as the wild-type. These results suggested that the GAAA loop/receptor interaction does not simply establish the RNA 3D structure but docking of P2 GAAA loop reduces the flexibility of the GAAA receptor motif in the P3 element. This mechanism was supported by a variant riboswitch bearing a theophylline aptamer module in P3 the structural rigidity of which could be modulated by the small molecule theophylline.

Prospects for riboswitch discovery and analysis

An expanding number of metabolite-binding riboswitch classes are being discovered in the noncoding portions of bacterial genomes. Findings over the last decade indicate that bacteria commonly use these RNA genetic elements as regulators of metabolic pathways and as mediators of changes in cell physiology. Some riboswitches are surprisingly complex, and they rival protein factors in their structural and functional sophistication. Each new riboswitch discovery expands our knowledge of the biochemical capabilities of RNA, and some give rise to new questions that require additional study to be addressed. Some of the greatest prospects for riboswitch research and some of the more interesting mysteries are discussed in this review.