Toward Engineering Intra-Receptor Interactions into Bis(crown ethers)

A synthetic receptor was designed in which cooperative binding of two crown ether moieties to an alkali metal ion simultaneously causes two hydrophobic substituents not involved in direct host-guest interactions to converge. Hydrophobic interactions between these substituents can be expected to contribute to the overall complex stability. Independent binding studies involving two diastereoisomers of this bis(crown ether), one in which intra-receptor interactions between the substituents are potentially possible and one in which they are not, using isothermal titration calorimetry showed that both isomers bind potassium ions in different solvent mixtures with the same overall affinity. Profound differences were observed for each isomer, however, in the enthalpies and entropies of binding, which are consistent with intra-receptor interactions in one compound. These interactions are counteracted by enthalpy-entropy compensation so that no overall improvement in cation affinity could be observed.

Molecular Recognition of Carbohydrates: Evaluation of the Binding Properties of Pyrazole-based receptors and their Comparison with Imidazole- and Indole-based Systems

The aim of the study was to evaluate the potential of pyrazole-based receptors in the complexation of carbohydrates. Representatives of a new series of acyclic pyrazole-based receptors were prepared and their binding properties toward selected mono- and disaccharides evaluated. The results of the binding studies were compared with those obtained for acyclic imidazole- and indole-based receptors. The first binding studies revealed di- vs monosaccharide binding preferences of the new receptors and showed that pyrazole units are useful building blocks for the construction of receptors with interesting binding preferences.

Host-Guest Chemistry of Alkaloids

Binding of alkaloids by different hosts (native and modified cyclodextrins, cucurbiturils, calixarenes, and metal complexes of porphyrin and Salphen-type ligands), as well as receptor properties of alkaloid based hosts are reviewed. With alkaloids as guests, the largest binding constants and most significant spectral changes, in particular strong fluorescence enhancements induced by complexation with isoquinoline alkaloids, are observed with cucurbituril hosts. Cyclodextrins are successfully employed for improvement of solubility and for chiral separation of alkaloids of different types. Receptor properties of native and modified cinchona and bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids have attracted considerable attention for development of chiral selectors for analysis and separation.

Cucurbit[8]uril mediated donor-acceptor ternary complexes: a model system for studying charge-transfer interactions

A supramolecular self-assembly approach is described which allows for the convenient preparation of a wide range of charge-transfer (CT) donor-acceptor complexes in aqueous solutions. When one equiv of the macrocyclic host cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]) is added to an aqueous donor and acceptor solution, a heteroternary complex forms inside the host's cavity with a well-defined face-to-face π-π-stacking geometry of the donor and acceptor. This heteroternary, CB[8]-mediated complex offers the opportunity to study the CT phenomena at low concentrations and free from complications arising from any donor-donor and acceptor-acceptor interactions as a result of the large binding affinities and the very high selectivity over the formation of these homoternary complexes. Thus, this supramolocular self-assembly strategy is a practical donor-acceptor mix-and-match approach with synthetic advantages over much more cumbersome tethering schemes. While the characteristic UV/vis features of a few CB[8] ternary systems had been described as a CT band, we present for the first time systematic evidence for the existence of CT interactions between several donor-acceptor pairs that are mediated by the host CB[8]. Correlation of the experimentally obtained CT λ(max) to computed HOMO-LUMO energies demonstrated that the CT process in the host's cavity can be described by the Mulliken model. Furthermore, the literature claim of a "CT driving force" for the formation of CB[8] ternary complexes was scrutinized and evaluated by calorimetric (ITC) and ESI-MS measurements. The findings indicated that neither in the aqueous medium nor in the "gas-phase" is CT of energetic relevance to the Gibbs free binding energy. In contrast, electrostatic considerations combined with solvation effects are much better suited to rationalize the observed trends in binding affinities. Additionally, the CT λ(max) was found to be much more red-shifted (≥75 nm) inside the CB[8] cavity than in any polar organic solvents or water, indicating a significant stabilization of the CT excited state within the host cavity, further demonstrating the unique electrostatic, polar properties of the host cavity.

Putting anion-π interactions into perspective

Supramolecular chemistry is a field of scientific exploration that probes the relationship between molecular structure and function. It is the chemistry of the noncovalent bond, which forms the basis of highly specific recognition, transport, and regulation events that actuate biological processes. The classic design principles of supramolecular chemistry include strong, directional interactions like hydrogen bonding, halogen bonding, and cation-π complexation, as well as less directional forces like ion pairing, π-π, solvophobic, and van der Waals potentials. In recent years, the anion-π interaction (an attractive force between an electron-deficient aromatic π system and an anion) has been recognized as a hitherto unexplored noncovalent bond, the nature of which has been interpreted through both experimental and theoretical investigations. The design of selective anion receptors and channels based on this interaction represent important advances in the field of supramolecular chemistry. The objectives of this Review are 1) to discuss current thinking on the nature of this interaction, 2) to survey key experimental work in which anion-π bonding is demonstrated, and 3) to provide insights into the directional nature of anion-π contact in X-ray crystal structures.

Study of cavity size and nature of bridging units on recognition of nucleotides by cyclophanes

We synthesized a few novel cyclophanes CP-1 to CP-4 containing anthracene units linked together through different bridging and spacer groups and have investigated their interactions with various nucleosides and nucleotides. Of these systems, CP-1 and CP-3 showed selectivity for 5'-GTP and 5'-ATP as compared to other nucleotides and nucleosides, whereas negligible selectivity was observed with CP-2 and CP-4. Interestingly, CP-1, CP-2 and CP-3 exhibited significant binding interactions with the fluorescent indicator, 8-hydroxy-1,3,6-pyrene trisulfonate (HPTS), resulting in the formation of non-fluorescent complexes. Titration of these complexes with nucleosides and nucleotides resulted in the displacement of HPTS, leading to the revival of its fluorescence intensity. It was observed that 5'-GTP induced the maximum displacement of HPTS from the complex [CP-1·HPTS] with an overall fluorescence enhancement of ca. 150-fold, while 5'-ATP induced ca. 45-fold. Although the displacement of HPTS from the complexes [CP-2·HPTS] and [CP-3·HPTS] was found to be similar to that of [CP-1·HPTS], these complexes showed lesser selectivity and sensitivity. In contrast, negligible displacement of HPTS was observed from the complex [CP-4·HPTS] under similar conditions. These results indicate that CP-1, having a well-defined cavity and good electron acceptor (viologen), is capable of forming selective and stable complexes. Though CP-2 and CP-3 retain the good electron acceptor (viologen), their reduced aromatic surface and larger cavity, respectively, resulted in lesser sensitivity. In contrast, CP-4 having a large cavity and a poor acceptor (1,2-bis(pyridin-4-yl)ethene) showed negligible selectivity, thereby indicating the importance of cavity size, bridging unit and aromatic surface on biomolecular recognition properties of cyclophanes.

Functional cyclophanes: promising hosts for optical biomolecular recognition

Cyclophanes possess a defined cavity size and are efficient in encapsulating and stabilising guest molecules inside the cavity through various non-covalent interactions. This unique property of the cyclophanes has been widely exploited for the development of selective probes for a variety of guest molecules. The present tutorial review highlights the use of various interesting functionalised cyclophane architectures for the sensitive and selective optical recognition of important biomolecules.

Selectivity principles in anion separation by crystallization of hydrogen-bonding capsules

The fundamental factors controlling anion selectivity in the crystallization of hydrogen-bonding capsules [Mg(H2O)6][X [symbol: see text] L2] (X = SO4(2-), 1a; SeO4(2-), 1b; SO3(2-), 1c; CO3(2-), 1d; L = tris[2-(3-pyridylurea)ethyl]-amine) from water have been investigated by solution and solid-state thermodynamic measurements, anion competition experiments, and X-ray structural analysis. The crystal structures of 1a-d are isomorphous, thereby simplifying the interpretation of the observed selectivities based on differences in anion coordination geometries. The solubilities of 1a-d in water follow the order: 1a < 1b < 1c < 1d, which is consistent with the selectivity for the tetrahedral sulfate and selenate anions observed in competitive crystallization experiments. Crystallization of the capsules is highly exothermic, with the most favorable DeltaH(cryst)(o) of -99.1 and -108.5 kJ/mol corresponding to SO4(2-) and SeO4(2-), respectively, in agreement with the X-ray structural data showing shape complementarity between these tetrahedral anions and the urea-lined cavities of the capsules. Sulfite, on the other hand, has a significantly less negative DeltaH(cryst)(o) of -64.6 kJ/mol, which may be attributed to its poor fit inside the capsules, involving repulsive interactions. The more favorable entropy of crystallization for this anion, however, partly offsets the enthalpic disadvantage, resulting in a solubility product very similar to that of the selenate complex. Because of their very similar shape and size, SO4(2-) and SeO4(2-) have a propensity to form solid solutions, which limits the selectivity between these two anions in competitive crystallizations. In the end, a comprehensive picture of contributing factors to anion selectivity in crystalline hydrogen-bonding capsules emerges.

N,N′-Bis(2-aminophenyl)-3,4-diphenylthiophene-2,5-dicarboxamide acetonitrile solvate

In the title solvate, C₃₀H₂₄N₄O₂S·CH₃CN, the substituted thiophene possesses approximate C_s(m) intrinsic symmetry, with the mirror plane passing through the S atom and the mid-point of the (Ph)C—C(Ph) bond. Despite the main backbone of the mol­ecule being a long chain of conjugated bonds, it adopts a non-planar conformation due to the presence of various intra- and inter­molecular hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds result in twist configurations for both the amido and amino­phenyl fragments relative to the central thio­phene ring. There are two intra­molecular N_amine—H⋯O hydrogen bonds within the thio­phene-2,5-dicarboxamide mol­ecule that form seven-membered rings. In the crystal, the thio­phene-2,5-dicarboxamide mol­ecules form inversion dimers by four amide–amine N—H⋯N hydrogen bonds. The dimers are further linked into layers propagating in (100) both directly (via N_amine—H⋯O hydrogen bonds) and through the acetonitrile solvate mol­ecules (via amine–cyano N—H⋯N and C_Me—H⋯O inter­actions).

Tritopic phenanthroline and pyridine tail-tied aza-scorpiands

The synthesis of two new tritopic double-scorpiand receptors in which two equivalent 5-(2-aminoethyl)-2,5,8-triaza[9]-(2,6)-pyridinophane moieties have been linked with 2,6-dimethylpyridine (L1) or 2,9-dimethylphenanthroline (L2) units is reported for the first time. Their acid-base behaviour and Zn(2+) coordination chemistry have been studied by pH-metric titrations, molecular dynamic calculations, NMR, UV-Vis and steady-state fluorescence techniques. L1 and L2 behave, respectively, as hexaprotic and heptaprotic bases in the experimental conditions used (298.1 +/- 0.1 K, 0.15 mol dm(-3) NaCl, pH range under study 2.0-11.0). These ligands are able to form mono-, bi- and trinuclear Zn(2+) complexes depending on the Zn(2+)-receptor molar ratio. Interaction of L1 and L2 with pyrophosphate (PPi), tripolyphosphate (TPP) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) has been followed by pH-metric titrations, (1)H and (31)P NMR techniques and molecular dynamic analysis. Finally, formation of mixed complexes Zn(2+)-L-PPi, Zn(2+)-L-TPP and Zn(2+)-L-ATP has been studied for both receptors by potentiometric titrations.

Recognition and sensing of nucleoside monophosphates by a dicopper(II) cryptate

The dimetallic cryptate [Cu(2)(II)(1)](4+) selectively recognizes guanosine monophosphate with respect to other nucleoside monophosphates (NMPs) in a MeOH/water solution at pH 7. Recognition is efficiently signaled through the displacement of the indicator 6-carboxyfluorescein bound to the receptor, monitoring its yellow fluorescent emission. Titration experiments evidenced the occurrence of several simultaneous equilibria involving 1:1 and 2:1 receptor/NMP and receptor/indicator complexes. It was demonstrated that the added NMP displaces the indicator from the 2:1 receptor/indicator complex, forming the 1:1 receptor/analyte inclusion complex. Recognition selectivity is thus ascribed to the nature of nucleotide donor atoms involved in the coordination and their ability to encompass the Cu(II)-Cu(II) distance within the cryptate.

Binding mechanisms in supramolecular complexes

Supramolecular chemistry has expanded dramatically in recent years both in terms of potential applications and in its relevance to analogous biological systems. The formation and function of supramolecular complexes occur through a multiplicity of often difficult to differentiate noncovalent forces. The aim of this Review is to describe the crucial interaction mechanisms in context, and thus classify the entire subject. In most cases, organic host-guest complexes have been selected as examples, but biologically relevant problems are also considered. An understanding and quantification of intermolecular interactions is of importance both for the rational planning of new supramolecular systems, including intelligent materials, as well as for developing new biologically active agents.