High-dose chemotherapy and stem-cell rescue for metastatic germ-cell tumors

Delayed rhabdomyolysis with paclitaxel, ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide regimen: a case report

Background

High-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem cell rescue is commonly used for the treatment of relapsed germ cell tumors. We report the first case of delayed rhabdomyolysis with paclitaxel, ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide regimen.

Case presentation

We report a case of a 21-year-old African-American man diagnosed with relapsed non-seminomatous germ cell tumor who received high-dose chemotherapy with carboplatin and etoposide following TIGER trial arm B off-protocol. His course was complicated by muscle pain and rhabdomyolysis after cycle 4 on day +12 after infusion of autologous stem cells. To the best of our knowledge, this complication has not been reported with this regimen. A differential diagnosis of sepsis and neutropenic fever along with side effects of high-dose chemotherapy were considered, but based on the timing of events, it was concluded that the etiology of rhabdomyolysis is high-dose chemotherapy. Rhabdomyolysis was successfully treated with hydration and did not recur during subsequent cycle 5.

Conclusions

Delayed rhabdomyolysis after high-dose chemotherapy with paclitaxel, ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide regimen has not been previously reported and needs to be considered for preventive strategy and prompt diagnosis and treatment to avoid renal complications. Physicians should have a low threshold to check creatine kinase enzymes in patients with unexplained muscle pain or renal insufficiency after high-dose chemotherapy.

High-Dose Chemotherapy for Adult-Type Ovarian Granulosa Cell Tumors: A Retrospective Study of the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation

OBJECTIVES

A few small retrospective series reported results with salvage chemotherapy for malignant ovarian adult-type granulosa cell tumors (GCTs), whereas no data are available on high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) with hematopoietic progenitor cell support (HSCS) in these patients. The aim of this study was to analyze the available data of HDC for adult-type GCTs.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of ovarian cancer treated with salvage HDC registered with the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation.

RESULTS

Of 203 adult female patients with a diagnosis of nonepithelial ovarian cancer treated with salvage HDC with HSCS and registered with the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation, 4 (2%) patients were affected by GCTs. All 4 patients had ovarian adult-type GCTs that relapsed/progressed after first-line chemotherapy. The conditioning regimens included a platinum agent in all 4 patients. Bone marrow recovery was promptly achieved; neither treatment-related deaths or life-threatening toxicities occurred. At a median follow-up of 8.5 months, all patients reported a progressive disease. The patient who underwent multicycle HDC enjoyed a long-term remission of 84 months before progression and is the only one alive after 94+ months.

CONCLUSIONS

We showed for the first time a case with long-lasting response to salvage multicycle HDC and HSCS in adult-type GCTs.

Role of High-Dose Chemotherapy With Autologous Stem-Cell Rescue in Men With Previously Treated Germ Cell Tumors

The Oncology Grand Rounds series is designed to place original reports published in the Journal into clinical context. A case presentation is followed by a description of diagnostic and management challenges, a review of the relevant literature, and a summary of the authors' suggested management approaches. The goal of this series is to help readers better understand how to apply the results of key studies, including those published in Journal of Clinical Oncology, to patients seen in their own clinical practice. A 39-year-old, previously healthy man presented with a left testicular mass, confirmed on ultrasound. He underwent left inguinal orchiectomy, which disclosed testicular carcinoma composed of 90% choriocarcinoma, 9% seminoma, and 1% teratoma. Imaging revealed numerous metastases in the lungs, liver, and brain. Prechemotherapy levels of serum tumor markers were alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) 2.0 ng/mL, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 151,111 IU/L, and lactate dehydrogenase 588 U/L. He received four courses of etoposide, ifosfamide, and cisplatin chemotherapy, given without bleomycin because of the anticipated need for postchemotherapy thoracic surgery. He had an incomplete response to induction chemotherapy. The serum hCG level was 8.1 IU/L, and there were residual lesions in the liver and lungs whereas the brain metastases had nearly resolved. His Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status was zero. He had no symptoms of ototoxicity or peripheral neurotoxicity. Repeat serum hCG levels after chemotherapy were 12.3 IU/L at 2 weeks and 325 IU/L at 4 weeks. He was referred to discuss optimal ongoing treatment.

Pediatric malignant germ cell tumors: A comparison of the neuro-oncology and solid tumor experience

Malignant germ cell tumors (GCT) arise from abnormal migration of primordial germ cells and are histologically identical whether they occur inside or outside the central nervous system (CNS). However, the treatment strategy for GCTs varies greatly depending on the location of the tumor. These differences are in part due to the increased morbidity of surgery in the CNS but may also reflect differential sensitivity of the tumors to chemotherapy and radiation therapy (RT) or not-yet-understood biologic differences between these tumors. Historically, specialists caring for extracranial and intracranial GCT in the United States have practiced separately without much cross communication. The focus of this review is a discussion of differences between the management of CNS and extra-CNS GCTs and opportunities for collaboration and future research.

High-Dose Chemotherapy and Autologous Peripheral-Blood Stem-Cell Transplantation for Relapsed Metastatic Germ Cell Tumors: The Indiana University Experience

Purpose Patients with relapsed metastatic germ cell tumor (GCT) can be cured with second-line and even third-line regimens. We report survival outcomes of patients treated with high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) and peripheral-blood stem-cell transplantation (PBSCT) at Indiana University between 2004 and 2014. Patients and Methods We conducted a retrospective analysis of 364 consecutive patients with GCT who progressed after cisplatin-based combination chemotherapy and were subsequently treated with HDCT and PBSCT. Three hundred forty-one patients received two consecutive courses of HDCT consisting of 700 mg/m² carboplatin and 750 mg/m² etoposide, each for 3 consecutive days, and each followed by PBSCT. Twenty-three patients received only a single course of HDCT because of progressive disease or toxicity. Cox proportional hazards models were used to test predictors of disease progression. Results The median age was 32 years (range, 17 to 70 years). With a median follow-up of 3.3 years, the 2-year progression-free survival (PFS) was 60% (95% CI, 55% to 65%) and the 2-year overall survival was 66% (95% CI, 60% to 70%). Three hundred three patients received HDCT as second-line therapy with a 2-year PFS of 63% (95% CI, 57% to 68%), and 61 patients received HDCT as third-line or later therapy with a 2-year PFS of 49% (95% CI, 36% to 61%). In a multivariable analysis, factors associated with disease progression included use of HDCT as third-line or later therapy, platinum-refractory disease, mediastinal primary tumor site, nonseminoma histology, intermediate- or poor-risk disease at the time of GCT diagnosis, and human chorionic gonadotropin ≥ 1,000 mIU/mL at initiation of HDCT. There were nine treatment-related deaths. Secondary leukemia developed in five patients. Conclusion This large single-institution study demonstrates that patients with relapsed metastatic GCT are curable by HDCT plus PBSCT even when used in third-line or later therapy.

Genetic Determinants of Cisplatin Resistance in Patients With Advanced Germ Cell Tumors

Purpose Owing to its exquisite chemotherapy sensitivity, most patients with metastatic germ cell tumors (GCTs) are cured with cisplatin-based chemotherapy. However, up to 30% of patients with advanced GCT exhibit cisplatin resistance, which requires intensive salvage treatment, and have a 50% risk of cancer-related death. To identify a genetic basis for cisplatin resistance, we performed whole-exome and targeted sequencing of cisplatin-sensitive and cisplatin-resistant GCTs. Methods Men with GCT who received a cisplatin-containing chemotherapy regimen and had available tumor tissue were eligible to participate in this study. Whole-exome sequencing or targeted exon-capture-based sequencing was performed on 180 tumors. Patients were categorized as cisplatin sensitive or cisplatin resistant by using a combination of postchemotherapy parameters, including serum tumor marker levels, radiology, and pathology at surgical resection of residual disease. Results TP53 alterations were present exclusively in cisplatin-resistant tumors and were particularly prevalent among primary mediastinal nonseminomas (72%). TP53 pathway alterations including MDM2 amplifications were more common among patients with adverse clinical features, categorized as poor risk according to the International Germ Cell Cancer Collaborative Group (IGCCCG) model. Despite this association, TP53 and MDM2 alterations predicted adverse prognosis independent of the IGCCCG model. Actionable alterations, including novel RAC1 mutations, were detected in 55% of cisplatin-resistant GCTs. Conclusion In GCT, TP53 and MDM2 alterations were associated with cisplatin resistance and inferior outcomes, independent of the IGCCCG model. The finding of frequent TP53 alterations among mediastinal primary nonseminomas may explain the more frequent chemoresistance observed with this tumor subtype. A substantial portion of cisplatin-resistant GCTs harbor actionable alterations, which might respond to targeted therapies. Genomic profiling of patients with advanced GCT could improve current risk stratification and identify novel therapeutic approaches for patients with cisplatin-resistant disease.

Platinum-induced hearing loss after treatment for childhood cancer

BACKGROUND

Platinum-based therapy, including cisplatin, carboplatin, oxaliplatin or a combination of these, is used to treat a variety of paediatric malignancies. Unfortunately, one of the most important adverse effects is the occurrence of hearing loss or ototoxicity. There is a wide variation in the reported prevalence of platinum-induced ototoxicity and the associated risk factors. More insight into the prevalence of and risk factors for platinum-induced hearing loss is essential in order to develop less ototoxic treatment protocols for the future treatment of children with cancer and to develop adequate follow-up protocols for childhood cancer survivors treated with platinum-based therapy.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the existing evidence on the association between childhood cancer treatment including platinum analogues and the occurrence of hearing loss.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (2015, Issue 8), MEDLINE (PubMed) (1945 to 23 September 2015) and EMBASE (Ovid) (1980 to 23 September 2015). In addition, we searched reference lists of relevant articles and the conference proceedings of the International Society for Paediatric Oncology (2008 to 2014), the American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology (2008 to 2015) and the International Conference on Long-Term Complications of Treatment of Children and Adolescents for Cancer (2010 to 2015). Experts in the field provided information on additional studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All study designs, except case reports, case series (i.e. a description of non-consecutive participants) and studies including fewer than 100 participants treated with platinum-based therapy who had an ototoxicity assessment, examining the association between childhood cancer treatment including platinum analogues and the occurrence of hearing loss.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently performed the study selection. One review author performed data extraction and risk of bias assessment, which was checked by another review author.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified 13 eligible cohort studies including 2837 participants with a hearing test after treatment with a platinum analogue for different types of childhood cancers. All studies had methodological limitations, with regard to both internal (risk of bias) and external validity. Participants were treated with cisplatin, carboplatin or both, in varying doses. The reported prevalence of hearing loss varied considerably between 0% and 90.1%; none of the studies provided data on tinnitus. Three studies reported a prevalence of 0%, but none of these studies provided a definition for hearing loss and there might be substantial or even complete overlap in included participants between these three studies. When only studies that did provide a definition for hearing loss were included, the prevalence of hearing loss still varied widely between 1.7% and 90.1%. All studies were very heterogeneous with regard to, for example, definitions of hearing loss, used diagnostic tests, participant characteristics, (prior) anti-tumour treatment, other ototoxic drugs and length of follow-up. Therefore, pooling of results was not possible.Only two studies included a control group of people who had not received platinum treatment. In one study, the prevalence of hearing loss was 67.1% (95% confidence interval (CI) 59.3% to 74.1%) in platinum-treated participants, while in the control participants it was 7.4% (95% CI 6.2% to 8.8%). However, hearing loss was detected by screening in survivors treated with platinum analogues and by clinical presentation in control participants. It is uncertain what the effect of this difference in follow-up/diagnostic testing was. In the other study, the prevalence of hearing loss was 20.1% (95% CI 17.4% to 23.2%) in platinum-treated participants and 0.4% (95% CI 0.12% to 1.6%) in control participants. As neither study was a randomized controlled trial or controlled clinical trial, the calculation of a risk ratio was not feasible as it is very likely that both groups differed more than only the platinum treatment.Only two studies evaluated possible risk factors using multivariable analysis. One study identified a significantly higher risk of hearing loss in people treated with cisplatin 400 mg/m(2) plus carboplatin 1700 mg/m(2) as compared to treatment with cisplatin 400 mg/m(2) or less, irrespective of the definition of hearing loss. They also identified a significantly higher risk of hearing loss in people treated with non-anthracycline aminoglycosides antibiotics (using a surrogate marker) as compared to people not treated with them, for three out of four definitions of hearing loss. The other study reported that age at treatment (odds ratio less than 1 for each single-unit increase) and single maximum cisplatin dose (odds ratio greater than 1 for each single-unit increase) were significant predictors for hearing loss, while gender was not.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review shows that children treated with platinum analogues are at risk for developing hearing loss, but the exact prevalence and risk factors remain unclear. There were no data available for tinnitus. Based on the currently available evidence we can only advise that children treated with platinum analogues are screened for ototoxicity in order to make it possible to diagnose hearing loss early and to take appropriate measures. However, we are unable to give recommendations for specific follow-up protocols including frequency of testing. Counselling regarding the prevention of noise pollution can be considered, such as the use of noise-limiting equipment, avoiding careers with excess noise and ototoxic medication. Before definitive conclusions on the prevalence and associated risk factors of platinum-induced ototoxicity can be made, more high-quality research is needed. Accurate and transparent reporting of findings will make it possible for readers to appraise the results of these studies critically.

Hematopoietic Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine: Astray or on the Path?

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the best characterized adult stem cells and the only stem cell type in routine clinical use. The concept of stem cell transplantation laid the foundations for the development of novel cell therapies within, and even outside, the hematopoietic system. Here, we report on the history of hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) and of HSC isolation, we briefly summarize the capabilities of HSCs to reconstitute the entire hemato/lymphoid cell system, and we assess current indications for HCT. We aim to draw the lines between areas where HCT has been firmly established, areas where HCT can in the future be expected to be of clinical benefit using their regenerative functions, and areas where doubts persist. We further review clinical trials for diverse approaches that are based on HCT. Finally, we highlight the advent of genome editing in HSCs and critically view the use of HSCs in non-hematopoietic tissue regeneration.

Salvage High-Dose Chemotherapy for Relapsed Pure Seminoma in the Last 10 Years: Results From the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation Series 2002-2012

BACKGROUND

The optimal management of advanced seminoma that relapses after chemotherapy remains unknown. We retrospectively analyzed outcomes with the use of high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Eligibility included adult male patients with pure seminomatous histology and treatment with salvage HDCT. Data of patients who received HDCT from 13 European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) centers were used. Multivariable Cox analyses evaluated the association of prespecified factors (line of treatment, prior radiotherapy, and chemosensitivity according to standard definition), with progression-free (PFS) and overall survival (OS). The prognostic ability of the model was assessed through the concordance statistic.

RESULTS

From December 2002 to December 2012, 46 cases were identified. Median age was 38 years (interquartile range, 35-46 years). HDCT was provided as second-line therapy (n = 14, 30.4%) and in third-line or beyond third-line therapy (n = 20, 43.5%; 12 had missing information). Sixteen patients (34.8%) received paraortic and/or iliac radiotherapy, and 10 (21.7%) had disease that was cisplatin refractory or absolutely refractory. Median follow-up was 22 months (interquartile range, 8-56). On multivariable Cox analysis, refractory disease was a significantly negative prognostic factor for both PFS (hazard ratio, 6.04; 95% confidence interval, 1.86-19.64) and OS (hazard ratio, 3.93; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-14.45), while prior radiotherapy trended to significance for both. The c index was 0.74 and 0.66 for PFS and OS, respectively. The small numbers and the lack of any comparison with conventional-dose chemotherapy are major study limitations.

CONCLUSION

Despite our small sample size, this retrospective analysis suggested that HDCT may represent a valuable therapeutic option for patients with a pure seminoma after standard-dose chemotherapy failure. Our observation requires validation through a prospective study.

ZBTB16: a novel sensitive and specific biomarker for yolk sac tumor

Although the function of zinc finger and BTB domain containing 16 (ZBTB16) in spermatogenesis is well documented, expression of ZBTB16 in germ cell tumors has not yet been studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the immunohistochemical expression and diagnostic utility of ZBTB16 in germ cell tumors. A total of 67 adult germ cell tumors were studied (62 testicular germ cell tumors, 2 ovarian yolk sac tumors, 1 mediastinal yolk sac tumor, and 2 retroperitoneal metastatic yolk sac tumors). The 62 testicular primary germ cell tumors are as follows: 34 pure germ cell tumors (20 seminomas, 8 embryonal carcinomas, 2 teratomas, 1 choriocarcinoma, 1 carcinoid, and 2 spermatocytic tumors) and 28 mixed germ cell tumors (composed of 13 embryonal carcinomas, 15 yolk sac tumors, 15 teratomas, 7 seminomas, and 3 choriocarcinomas in various combinations). Thirty-five cases contained germ cell neoplasia in situ. Yolk sac tumor was consistently reactive for ZBTB16. Among the 15 testicular yolk sac tumors in mixed germ cell tumors, all displayed moderate to diffuse ZBTB16 staining. ZBTB16 reactivity was present regardless of the histologic patterns of yolk sac tumor and ZBTB16 was able to pick up small foci of yolk sac tumor intermixed/embedded in other germ cell tumor subtype elements. Diffuse ZBTB16 immunoreactivity was also observed in 2/2 metastatic yolk sac tumors, 1/1 mediastinal yolk sac tumor, 2/2 ovarian yolk sac tumors, 2/2 spermatocytic tumors, 1/1 carcinoid, and the spermatogonial cells. All the other non-yolk sac germ cell tumors were nonreactive, including seminoma (n=27), embryonal carcinoma (n=21), teratoma (n=17), choriocarcinoma (n=4), and germ cell neoplasia in situ (n=35). The sensitivity and specificity of ZBTB16 in detecting yolk sac tumor among the germ cell tumors was 100% (20/20) and 96% (66/69), respectively. In conclusion, ZBTB16 is a highly sensitive and specific marker for yolk sac tumor.

Ovarian Yolk Sac Tumor: The Experience of a Regional Cancer Center

Objective

The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinicopathologic characteristics of patients with ovarian yolk sac tumor and the benefit of omentectomy in patients with clinical early-stage disease.

Methods

The medical records of 66 patients with ovarian yolk sac tumor were reviewed retrospectively.

Results

There were 37, 8, 14, and 7 patients with stages I, II, III, and IV disease, respectively. Sixty-five patients received surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy, and 1 had chemotherapy only. The median follow-up was 78 months. The overall 5-year survival rate was 86.0%. Univariate analysis revealed that stage (P = 0 .022), age (P = 0.001), residual tumor (P = 0.036), and satisfactory α-fetoprotein (AFP) decline (defined as normalization of AFP after the first or second cycles of postsurgery chemotherapy, P = 0.006) were significant prognostic factors. Multivariate analysis revealed that satisfactory AFP decline was an independent significant prognostic factor for overall survival (P = 0.028). The postoperative pathology showed that only 1 (2.7%) of 37 patients who received omentectomy without gross spread had omentum metastasis microscopically. The 5-year survival rates were 89.2% and 100.0% for stage I-II patients with (36 cases) or without (9 cases) omentectomy, respectively (P > 0.05). Three of the 7 patients with recurrence were successfully salvaged and lived 38.0, 102.6, and 45.2 months after initial diagnosis.

Conclusions

Postsurgery satisfactory AFP decline was an independent significant prognostic factor for patient survival. Omentectomy might not be of therapeutic significance for clinical stage I-II patients.

Successful hematopoietic stem cell mobilization with vinorelbine and filgrastim in germ cell tumor

Germ cell tumor (GCT) is the most frequent cancer in young men and is highly curable. Almost 80 % of patients with the disease in an advanced stage achieve a reliable response to cisplatin combination chemotherapy. For relapsing or refractory disease, autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is an effective therapy. The two most used mobilization strategies for HSC collection are filgrastim alone or filgrastim after chemotherapy (chemomobilization). HSC collection with filgrastim mobilization can be difficult, especially in highly treated patients. While the addition of chemotherapy improves mobilization and reduces the number of apheresis sessions, it can increase morbidity rate as well. We describe a case of a 45-year-old male with classical seminoma who was submitted to orchiectomy. Two months after, he presented progression of the tumor. He received four cycles of cisplatin, etoposide and bleomycin, with residual retroperitoneal mass and cervical lymphadenopathy. Further, he was submitted to three more cycles of cisplatin, ifosfamide and paclitaxel. Thereupon, he showed partial response. At that moment, autologous HSC transplantation was considered. In the first mobilization, filgrastim alone was used without success in harvesting. The second mobilization consisted of vinorelbine at day 1 (35 mg/m²) and filgrastim (16 µg/kg) started at day 5. The peak of CD34+ cells in peripheral blood was 32.6 × 10⁶ cells/L on day 8, with 4.73 × 10⁶ cells/kg CD34+ collected on days 8 and 9. The benefits of this scheme include: (a) outpatient administration, (b) fewer doses of filgrastim, (c) minimal risk of febrile neutropenia and (d) reliable prediction of collection day. For these reasons, we conclude that vinorelbine chemomobilization is a great option for GCT, particularly in patients with high risk of mobilization failure. Furthermore, it requires less resource usage, hospitalizations and transfusions than conventional chemomobilization.

Testicular germ cell tumours

Testicular germ cell tumours are at the crossroads of developmental and neoplastic processes. Their cause has not been fully elucidated but differences in incidences suggest that a combination of genetic and environment factors are involved, with environmental factors predominating early in life. Substantial progress has been made in understanding genetic susceptibility in the past 5 years on the basis of the results of large genome-wide association studies. Testicular germ cell tumours are highly sensitive to radiotherapy and chemotherapy and hence have among the best outcomes of all tumours. Because the tumours occur mainly in young men, preservation of reproductive function, quality of life after treatment, and late effects are crucial concerns. In this Seminar, we provide an overview of advances in the understanding of the epidemiology, genetics, and biology of testicular germ cell tumours. We also summarise the consensus on how to treat testicular germ cell tumours and focus on a few controversies and improvements in the understanding of late effects of treatment and quality of life for survivors.

Impact of Non-Pulmonary Visceral Metastases in the Prognosis and Practice of Metastatic Testicular Germ Cell Tumors

Non-pulmonary visceral metastases, in bones, brain and liver, represent nearly the 10% of metastatic sites of advanced germ cell tumors and are associated with poor prognosis. This review article summarizes major evidences on the impact of different visceral sites on the prognosis, treatment and clinical outcome of patients with germ cell tumors. The clinic-biological mechanisms by which these metastatic sites are associated with poor clinical outcome remain unclear. The multimodality treatment showed a potential better survival, in particular in patients with relapsed disease. Patients with advanced germ cell tumors with visceral metastases should be referred to centers with high expertise in the clinical management of such disease.

High Rates of Thromboembolic Events in Patients with Germ Cell Cancer Undergoing Cisplatin-Based Polychemotherapy

BACKGROUND

We examined whether or not extended prophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) would significantly reduce thromboembolic event (TEE) rates in germ cell cancer patients undergoing cisplatin-based chemotherapy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

LMWH prophylaxis was given from the first day of chemotherapy until 21 days after completing the last chemotherapy cycle to 45 out of 93 (48.4%) patients (extended), and to 48 out of 93 (51.6%) patients during their hospitalization only (limited) between January 2008 and December 2013. Patients were analyzed retrospectively for TEEs such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism (PE), myocardial infarction (MI) or peripheral arterial thrombosis.

RESULTS

A total of 22/93 (23.7%) patients experienced 30 TEE during chemotherapy: 12 out of 30 (40%) deep vein thrombosis, 4 out of 30 (13.3%) MI, 10 out of 30 (33.3%) PE and 4 out of 30 peripheral arterial thrombosis (13.3%). TEE rates in both groups did not differ significantly (extended: 26.7 vs. limited: 20.8%).

CONCLUSIONS

The introduction of extended LMWH prophylaxis did not significantly reduce TEE rates in our patient cohort.

Prognostic factors in patients with poor-risk germ-cell tumors: a retrospective analysis of the Indiana University experience from 1990 to 2014

BACKGROUND

Based on the risk stratification from the International Germ Cell Cancer Collaborative Group (IGCCCG), only 14% of patients with metastatic germ-cell tumors (GCT) had poor-risk disease with a 5-year progression-free survival (PFS) rate of 41% and a 5-year overall survival (OS) rate of only 48%. This analysis attempts to identify prognostic factors for patients with poor-risk disease.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of all patients with GCT diagnosed and treated at Indiana University from 1990 to 2014. Clinical and pathological characteristics were available for all patients and all of them were treated with cisplatin-etoposide-based chemotherapy. Cox proportional hazards models were used to target significant predictors of disease progression and mortality. A significance level of 5% was used in the analysis.

RESULTS

We identified 273 consecutive patients with poor-risk GCT (PRGCT). Median follow-up time was 8 years (range 0.03-24.5). The 5-year PFS and OS rates were 58% [95% confidence interval (CI) 51% to 63%] and 73% (95% CI 67% to 78%), respectively. In multivariate survival analyses, multiple risk factors were associated with disease progression, including liver metastasis, brain metastasis, primary mediastinal nonseminomatous GCT (PMNSGCT), and elevation in logarithmic β-hCG. Significant predictors of mortality were PMNSGCT [hazard ratio (HR) 4.63, 95% CI 2.25-9.56; P < 0.001], brain metastasis (HR 3.30, 95% CI 1.74-6.23; P < 0.001), and increasing age (HR 1.03, 95% CI 1.01-1.06; P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with PMNSGCT, brain metastasis, or with increasing age are at higher risk of death than their counterparts. This contemporary cohort (1990-2014) of 273 patients with PRGCT had improved PFS and OS outcomes than those from the historical IGCCCG group of patients (1975-1990).

High dose chemotherapy with stem cell support in the treatment of testicular cancer

Testicular germ cell cancer (TGCC) is rare form of malignant disease that occurs mostly in young man between age 15 and 40. The worldwide incidence of TGCC is 1.5 per 100000 man with the highest rates in North Europe. After discovery of cisplatin cure rates of TGCC are very favorable between 90%-95% and unlike most solid tumors, cure rate for metastatic TGCC is around 80%. Metastatic TGCC is usually treated with 3-4 cycles of bleomycin, etoposide, cisplatinum chemotherapy with or without retroperitoneal surgery and cure rates with this approach are between 41% in poor risk group and 92% in good risk group of patients. Cure rates are lower in relapsed and refractory patients and many of them will die from the disease if not cured with first line chemotherapy. High dose chemotherapy (HDCT) approach was used for the first time during the 1980s. Progress in hematology allowed the possibility to keep autologous haematopoietic stem cells alive ex-vivo at very low temperatures and use them to repopulate the bone marrow after sub-lethal dose of intesive myeloablative chemotherapy. Despite the fact that there is no positive randomized study to prove HDCT concept, cure rates in relapsed TGCC are higher after high dose therapy then in historical controls in studies with conventional treatment. Here we review clinical studies in HDCT for TGCC, possibilities of mobilising sufficient number of stem cells and future directions in the treatment of this disease.

Phase II study of everolimus in refractory testicular germ cell tumors

BACKGROUND

Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) represent a highly curable disease; however, a small proportion of patients develop disease recurrence. Loss of the tumor-suppressor gene phosphatase and tensin homolog marks the transition from intratubular germ cell neoplasia to invasive GCT and is correlated with disease progression. Inactivation of phosphatase and tensin homolog is associated with deregulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway and increased mammalian target of rapamycin signaling. This study aimed to determine the efficacy and toxicity of a mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor, everolimus, in patients with refractory TGCTs.

METHODS

From December 2011 to February 2015, 15 patients with refractory GCTs were enrolled in the phase II study. All patients were pretreated with at least 2 cisplatin-based therapies; 4 tumors (26.7%) were absolutely refractory to cisplatin and 9 patients (60.0%) had visceral nonpulmonary metastases. Everolimus was administered at a dose of 10mg daily until progression or unacceptable toxicity. The primary end point was the objective response rate, according to Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors.

RESULTS

No objective response was observed, but 6 patients (40.0%) achieved 12-week progression-free survival. During a median follow-up period of 3.6 months (range: 1-35.1mo), all patients experienced disease progression and 11 patients (80.0%) died. Median progression-free survival was 1.7 months (95% CI: 1.1-4.0mo) and median overall survival was 3.6 months (95% CI: 2.0-11.0mo).

CONCLUSIONS

This study failed to achieve its primary end point and our data suggest limited efficacy of everolimus against unselected heavily pretreated refractory TGCTs.

CONDENSED ABSTRACT

Everolimus showed limited efficacy in unselected heavily pretreated refractory TGCTs. Prolonged disease stabilization could be achieved in selected patients.

High-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplantation in relapsed or refractory germ cell tumours: outcomes and prognostic variables in a case series of 17 patients

BACKGROUND

Optimal therapy for men relapsing after initial chemotherapy for germ cell tumours (GCT) is poorly defined. Both conventional dose salvage regimens and high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplantation (HDCT-ASCT) have been utilised.

AIMS

To examine patients who received HDCT-ASCT for relapsed GCT within a single Australian centre.

METHODS

Records between 2000 and 2012 were analysed for baseline characteristics, treatment-related toxicity and survival. Prognosis at the time of HDCT-ASCT was classified according to the International Prognostic Factors Study Group (IPFSG).

RESULTS

Seventeen patients received HDCT-ASCT, median age 34 (21-46), with 41% having primary refractory disease and 53% with high/very high risk disease by IPFSG. The most common regimen utilised was paclitaxel/ifosfamide followed by high-dose carboplatin/etoposide (TI-CE; n = 12). The median duration of grade 4 (G4) neutropenia was 11 days (range 9-17) with febrile neutropenia in 90% resulting in four intensive care unit admissions (8%). Median duration of G4 thrombocytopenia was 10 days (range 8-19) requiring a median of two pooled platelets bags (range 0-33) per episode. Transplant-related mortality occurred in one patient (veno-occlusive disease). Twenty-seven per cent of HDCT-ASCT cycles were associated with grade 3 mucositis (median total parenteral nutrition days = 5 (0-23)). Two-year progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) rates were 59% and 71%. Patients who received HDCT-ASCT as second or subsequent relapse fared worse than those treated with HDCT-ASCT at first relapse (hazard ratio 0.23 (95% confidence interval: 0.04, 1.37; P-value 0.09). Three-year OS for those who received TI-CE at first relapse was 90%.

CONCLUSIONS

HDCT-ASCT for relapsed GCT is effective with acceptable toxicity. There was encouraging PFS/OS, particularly in a poor-prognosis cohort.

Pediatric and Adolescent Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors: The Road to Collaboration

During the past 35 years, survival rates for children with extracranial malignant germ cell tumors (GCTs) have increased significantly. Success has been achieved primarily through the application of platinum-based chemotherapy regimens; however, clinical challenges in GCTs remain. Excellent outcomes are not distributed uniformly across the heterogeneous distribution of age, histologic features, and primary tumor site. Despite good outcomes overall, the likelihood of a cure for certain sites and histologic conditions is less than 50%. In addition, there are considerable long-term treatment-related effects for survivors. Even modest cisplatin dosing can cause significant long-term morbidities. A particular challenge in designing new therapies for GCT is that a variety of specialists use different risk stratifications, staging systems, and treatment approaches for three distinct age groups (childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood). Traditionally, pediatric cancer patients younger than 15 years have been treated by pediatric oncologists in collaboration with their surgical specialty colleagues. Adolescents and young adults with GCTs often are treated by medical oncologists, urologists, or gynecologic oncologists. The therapeutic dilemma for all is how to best define disease risk so that therapy and toxicity can be appropriately reduced for some patients and intensified for others. Further clinical and biologic insights can only be achieved through collaborations that do not set limitations by age, sex, and primary tumor site. Therefore, international collaborations, spanning different cooperative groups and disciplines, have been developed to address these challenges.

Testicular choriocarcinoma: a rare variant that requires a unique treatment approach

Testicular germ cell tumors represent the most common malignancy among young men. While 5-year overall survival and cure for this population is greater than 95%, choriocarcinoma is an aggressive subtype of this disease with far worse prognosis--5-year survival for choriocarcinoma is less than 80%. In order to be able to treat these patients appropriately, a provider must recognize characteristic features of choriocarcinoma including elevated human chorionic gonadotropin in a young man with testicular mass; the astute clinician should also know the signs and symptoms of choriocarcinoma syndrome, characterized by bleeding from metastatic sites, which represents a medical emergency and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Treatment should be directed towards a goal of tumor marker normalization, and patients with refractory disease should be considered for advanced therapies and clinical trials. Choriocarcinoma is a unique and aggressive germ cell malignancy, and these patients require early aggressive treatment to improve their chance of survival.

Outcomes of postchemotherapy retroperitoneal lymph node dissection following high-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplantation

BACKGROUND

Characterizing the role of postchemotherapy retroperitoneal lymph node dissection (PC-RPLND) after high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) has been limited by small sample sizes. This study reports on survival after HDCT with stem cell support and PC-RPLND as well as histologic findings in the retroperitoneum.

METHODS

The prospectively maintained testicular cancer database of Indiana University was queried for patients receiving HDCT with stem cell transplantation before PC-RPLND. The cause and date of death were obtained through patient chart review and contact with referring physicians. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to evaluate overall survival (OS). The log-rank test was used for tests of significance. A multivariate, backward, stepwise Cox regression model was built to evaluate predictors of overall mortality.

RESULTS

A total of 92 patients were included in the study. In the entire cohort, the retroperitoneal (RP) histology findings at the time of PC-RPLND were necrosis (26%), teratoma (34%), and cancer (38%). Sixty-six patients (72%) harbored either a teratoma or active cancer in the RP specimen at PC-RPLND. The median follow-up for the entire cohort was 80.6 months. A total of 28 patients (30%) died during follow-up. The 5-year OS rate of the entire cohort was 70%. The most significant predictor of death was PC-RPLND performed in the desperation setting with elevated markers.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite these patients being heavily pretreated with multiple cycles of chemotherapy, including HDCT, approximately three-fourths were found to have a teratoma and/or active cancer in the retroperitoneum. This underscores the importance of PC-RPLND for rendering patients free of disease and providing a potential for cure.

Bevacizumab/high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem-cell transplant for poor-risk relapsed or refractory germ-cell tumors

BACKGROUND

High-dose chemotherapy (HDC) using sequential cycles of carboplatin/etoposide is curative for relapsed germ-cell tumors (GCT). However, outcomes of high-risk patients in advanced relapse remain poor. We previously developed a new HDC regimen combining infusional gemcitabine with docetaxel/melphalan/carboplatin (GemDMC), with preliminary high activity in refractory GCT. Given the high vascular endothelial growth factor expression in metastatic GCT and the synergy between bevacizumab and chemotherapy, we studied concurrent bevacizumab and sequential HDC using GemDMC and ifosfamide/carboplatin/etoposide (ICE) in patients with poor-risk relapsed or refractory disease.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Eligibility criteria included intermediate/high-risk relapse (Beyer Model), serum creatinine ≤ 1.8 mg/dl and adequate pulmonary/cardiac/hepatic function. Patients received sequential HDC cycles with bevacizumab preceding GemDMC (cycle 1) and ICE (cycle 2). The trial was powered to distinguish a target 50% 2-year relapse-free survival (RFS) from an expected 25% 2-year RFS in this population.

RESULTS

We enrolled 43 male patients, median age 30 (20-49) years, with absolute refractory (N = 20), refractory (N = 17) or cisplatin-sensitive (N = 6) disease, after a median 3 (1-5) prior relapses. Disease status right before HDC was unresponsive (N = 24, progressive disease 22, stable disease 2), partial response with positive markers (PRm(+)) (N = 8), PRm(-) (N = 7) or complete response (N = 4). Main toxicities were mucositis and renal. Four patients (three with baseline marginal renal function) died from HDC-related complications. Tumor markers normalized in 85% patients. Resection of residual lesions (N = 13) showed necrosis (N = 4), mature teratoma (N = 2), necrosis/teratoma (N = 3) and viable tumor (N = 4). At median follow-up of 46 (9-84) months, the RFS and overall survival rates are 55.8% and 58.1%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Sequential bevacizumab/GemDMC-bevacizumab/ICE shows encouraging outcomes in heavily pretreated and refractory GCT, exceeding the results expected in this difficult to treat population.

CLINICALTRIALSGOV

NCT00936936.

Vulvar yolk sac tumor diagnosed during pregnancy, with recurrence during subsequent second pregnancy

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Vulvar yolk sac tumor (YST) is an exceptionally rare and aggressive extra-gonadal germ cell tumor, previously only described in 15 cases in the literature.

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We present a unique case of vulvar YST diagnosed during pregnancy, treated with systemic chemotherapy, who subsequently recurred during a second pregnancy.

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Despite salvage chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation at recurrence, our patient succumbed to her disease, 31 months post diagnosis.

Phase I/II Trial of Paclitaxel With Ifosfamide Followed by High-Dose Paclitaxel, Ifosfamide, and Carboplatin (TI-TIC) With Autologous Stem Cell Reinfusion for Salvage Treatment of Germ Cell Tumors

BACKGROUND

Salvage high-dose (HD) chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT), consisting of 2 to 3 sequential cycles of HD carboplatin and etoposide (CE) can achieve durable remissions in approximately half of patients with relapsed germ cell tumors. To improve on these results and based on success with paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and cisplatin (TIP) as salvage conventional-dose chemotherapy, we conducted a phase I/II trial of HD paclitaxel with ifosfamide (TI), substituting carboplatin for cisplatin to allow dose escalation.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Treatment consisted of 1 to 2 cycles of TI and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for stem cell mobilization followed by 3 cycles of HD TI with carboplatin (TIC) with ASCT every 21 to 28 days. Twenty-six patients were enrolled. For phase I, a standard 3+3 dose-escalation design was used.

RESULTS

With no dose-limiting toxicities observed, the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) was not reached and the highest prespecified dose level (paclitaxel 250 mg/m(2), ifosfamide 9990 mg/m(2), carboplatin area under the curve 24) was considered the MTD. In phase II, a Simon 2-stage design was used to estimate the complete response (CR) rate at the MTD. With 7 of 11 phase II patients who achieved a CR, efficacy was demonstrated. However, 3 patients developed delayed chronic kidney disease, resulting in premature trial closure.

CONCLUSION

TI-TIC was active in relapsed germ cell tumors but treatment-emergent chronic renal impairment, possibly from overlapping ifosfamide and carboplatin, preclude its further use. TI-CE, consisting of 2 cycles of TI with 3 cycles of HD CE remains the standard of care HD chemotherapy regimen at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.

Germ cell tumors: looking to the future

Our knowledge about the management of men with germ cell tumors (GCTs) and its tumor biology continues to evolve. Vascular disease, metabolic syndrome, second malignant neoplasms, and hypogonadism occur after treatment for GCTs and the latency pattern resembles that seen in patients treated for Hodgkin lymphoma. Patients receiving treatment for GCTs should be informed not only of the near-term toxicity (experienced during or shortly after administration), but also the delayed and late effects of chemotherapy and the need for lifelong surveillance for all late outcomes, including late relapse. Recent data suggest that the treatment outcome of patients with intermediate-risk, poor-risk, and relapsed GCTs can be improved through multicenter trials that include the general oncology community. Finally, GCTs are a malignancy of primordial germ cells. Programmed differentiation is clinically evident in vivo and probably related to chemotherapy resistance. This biology has much clinical relevance, some of which is already in use.

Salvage high-dose chemotherapy for germ cell tumors

BACKGROUND

Salvage high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) along with autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT) plays an important role in the management of patients with germ cell tumors (GCT) and progression after first-line cisplatin-based chemotherapy. In this review, the authors will discuss the history of HDCT as salvage management of patients with GCT, improvement in efficacy and safety over the past 25 years, prognostic factors for outcome, and the conflicting data on the optimal initial salvage approach.

METHODS

The authors performed a PubMed search of HDCT and GCT to identify articles relevant to this review. After discussion, the articles felt to have contributed most notably to the field were selected for inclusion and summarized.

RESULTS

Depending on patient selection and timing of HDCT, durable remission rates with salvage HDCT range between 30% and 63%. The combination of carboplatin and etoposide is the standard regimen for the high-dose cycles with more variability in the regimens used for stem cell mobilization. Adding a third agent, particularly an oxazophosphorine (cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide), may add toxicity without increasing efficacy. In addition, sequential (2 or 3 cycle) HDCT regimens appear more effective and safer than single-cycle HDCT regimens. The optimal initial salvage approach (HDCT or conventional-dose chemotherapy) remains an unanswered question and highly controversial.

CONCLUSIONS

Salvage HDCT with ASCT can cure a significant proportion of patients with GCT and progression after one or more lines of cisplatin-based chemotherapy and thus plays an important role in the contemporary management of high-risk patients.

Indications for allo- and auto-SCT for haematological diseases, solid tumours and immune disorders: current practice in Europe, 2015

This is the sixth special report that the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation regularly publishes on the current practice and indications for haematopoietic SCT for haematological diseases, solid tumours and immune disorders in Europe. Major changes have occurred in the field of haematopoietic SCT over the last years. Cord blood units as well as haploidentical donors have been increasingly used as stem cell sources for allo-SCT, thus, augmenting the possibility of finding a suitable donor for a patient. Continuous refinement of conditioning strategies has also expanded not only the number of potential indications but also has permitted consideration of older patients or those with co-morbidity for a transplant. There is accumulating evidence of the role of haematopoietic SCT in non-haematological disorders such as autoimmune diseases. On the other hand, the advent of new drugs and very effective targeted therapy has challenged the role of SCT in some instances or at least, modified its position in the treatment armamentarium of a given patient. An updated report with revised tables and operating definitions is presented.

Plerixafor added to G-CSF-supported paclitaxel-ifosfamide-cisplatin salvage chemotherapy enhances mobilization of adequate numbers of hematopoietic stem cells for subsequent autografting in hard-to-mobilize patients with relapsed/refractory germ-cell tumors: a single-center experience

An appreciable percentage of patients with relapsed/refractory germ-cell tumors (GCTs), candidates for high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) and autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), fail to mobilize adequate hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) numbers with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)±salvage chemotherapy. Plerixafor has shown a potential to mobilize adequate CD34+HSCs numbers in this context. Here, we applied plerixafor in combination with G-CSF after salvage chemotherapy in 'poor' mobilizers with relapsed/refractory GCTs for HDC+HCT. Patients with relapsed/refractory GCTs (n=10) received salvage paclitaxel-ifosfamide-cisplatin (TIP) chemotherapy+G-CSF to mobilize adequate HSCs to support HDC, mainly with two courses of high-dose thiotepa-etoposide-carboplatin (TEC). Patients failing to achieve the minimum collection threshold of 2.0×10/kg CD34+ cells, to support at least one cycle of HDC, were administered plerixafor before the anticipated HSC collection during subsequent cycle(s). Overall, seven patients mobilized adequate CD34+ cells (>5.0×10/kg) aiming to support two cycles of HDC. Three patients did not mobilize adequate numbers of CD34+ cells after previous G-CSF plus salvage TIP, and plerixafor was added in subsequent cycle(s). This led to a collection of adequate CD34+ cells, able to support HDC with TEC (1-2 cycles). Hematopoietic engraftment for neutrophils (absolute neutrophil count>500/μl) and platelets (platelet count>20 000/μl) with plerixafor-mobilized HSCs occurred after a median of 9 and 14 days, respectively. Salvage TIP+G-CSF leads to successful HSC mobilization in patients with less heavily pretreated GCTs, whereas the addition of plerixafor to G-CSF+TIP led to mobilization of adequate HSCs that supported autografting after one to two TEC cycles.

High-dose sequential chemotherapy (HDS) versus PEB chemotherapy as first-line treatment of patients with poor prognosis germ-cell tumors: mature results of an Italian randomized phase II study

BACKGROUND

In the late 1990s, the use of high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) and stem-cell rescue held promise for patients with advanced and poor prognosis germ-cell tumors (GCT). We started a randomized phase II trial to assess the efficacy of sequential HDCT compared with cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin (PEB).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients were randomly assigned to receive four cycles of PEB every 3 weeks or two cycles of PEB followed by a high-dose sequence (HDS) comprising HD-cyclophosphamide (7.0 g/m(2)), 2 courses of cisplatin and HD-etoposide (2.4 g/m(2)) with stem-cell support, and a single course of HD-carboplatin [area under the curve (AUC) 27 mg/ml × min] with autologous stem-cell transplant. Postchemotherapy surgery was planned on responding residual disease in both arms. The primary end point was progression-free survival (PFS). The study was designed to detect a 30% improvement of 5-year PFS (from 40% to 70%), with 80% power and two-sided α at 5%.

RESULTS

From December 1996 to March 2007, 85 patients were randomized: 43 in PEB and 42 in HDS arm. Median follow-up was 114.2 months [interquartile range (IQR): 87.7-165.8]. Complete or partial response with normal markers (PRm-) were obtained in 28 (65.1%) and 29 (69.1%) patients, respectively. Five-year PFS was 55.8% [95% confidence interval (CI) 42.8-72.8] and 54.8% (95% CI 41.6%-72.1%) in PEB and HDS arm, respectively (log-rank test P = 0.726). Five-year overall survival was 62.8% (95% CI 49.9-79.0) and 59.3% (95% CI 46.1-76.3). One toxic death (PEB arm) was recorded.

CONCLUSIONS

The study failed to meet the primary end point. Furthermore, survival estimates of conventional-dose chemotherapy higher than expected should be accounted for and will likely limit further improvements in the first-line setting. CLINICALTRIALS.GOV: NCT02161692.

Salvage therapy in patients with germ cell tumors

Testicular cancer is the most curable metastatic solid tumor. Initial chemotherapy is evidence based with risk stratification into three prognostic categories: good, intermediate, and advanced disease. Guidelines for disease management following progression after initial cisplatin combination chemotherapy are less clear. Options include salvage surgery for patients with anatomically confined relapse, standard-dose cisplatin combination chemotherapy, or high-dose chemotherapy with carboplatin plus etoposide with peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Proper interpretation of a presumed relapse can be complicated. Growing masses on imaging studies might reflect a growing teratoma. Persistent elevations of serum human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) or alpha fetoprotein (AFP) are only an indication for salvage therapy if there is a definitive rise in the tumor marker. Elevated and rising serum hCG as the only evidence of recurrence can be because of cross reactivity with luteinizing hormone or usage of marijuana rather than progressive cancer. Elevated liver function tests can cause rising serum AFP.