The PILATUS 1M detector

Upsampling speckle patterns for coherent X-ray diffraction imaging

Coherent X-ray diffraction imaging is a lensless imaging technique where an iterative phase-retrieval algorithm is applied to the speckle pattern, the far-field diffraction pattern produced by an isolated object. To ensure convergence to a unique solution, the diffraction pattern must be oversampled by a factor of two or more. Since the resolution in real space depends on the maximum wave vector where the intensity is detected,i.e.on the detector field of view, there is a practical limitation on oversampling in reciprocal space and resolution in real space that is ultimately determined by the number of pixels. This work shows that it is possible to reduce the effective pixel size and maintain the detector field of view by applying a linear combination method to shifted diffraction patterns. The feasibility of the method is demonstrated by reconstructing the images of test objects from diffraction patterns oversampled in each dimension by factors of 1.3 and 1.8 only. The described approach can be applied to any diffraction or imaging technique where the resolution is compromised by a large pixel size.

An unusual arrangement of two 14-3-3-like domains in the SMG5-SMG7 heterodimer is required for efficient nonsense-mediated mRNA decay

The nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway triggers the rapid degradation of aberrant mRNAs containing premature translation termination codons (PTCs). In metazoans, NMD requires three 14-3-3-like proteins: SMG5, SMG6, and SMG7. These proteins are recruited to PTC-containing mRNAs through the interaction of their 14-3-3-like domains with phosphorylated UPF1, the central NMD effector. Recruitment of SMG5, SMG6, and SMG7 causes NMD target degradation. In this study, we report the crystal structure of the Caenorhabditis elegans SMG5-SMG7 complex. The 14-3-3-like phosphopeptide recognition domains of SMG5 and SMG7 heterodimerize in an unusual perpendicular back-to-back orientation in which the peptide-binding sites face opposite directions. Structure-based mutants and functional assays indicate that the SMG5-SMG7 interaction is conserved and is crucial for efficient NMD in human cells. Notably, we demonstrate that heterodimerization increases the affinity of the SMG5-SMG7 complex for UPF1. Furthermore, we show that the degradative activity of the SMG5-SMG7 complex resides in SMG7 and that the SMG5-SMG7 complex and SMG6 play partially redundant roles in the degradation of aberrant mRNAs. We propose that the SMG5-SMG7 complex binds to phosphorylated UPF1 with high affinity and recruits decay factors to the mRNA target through SMG7, thus promoting target degradation.

Success and failure of dead-time models as applied to hybrid pixel detectors in high-flux applications

The performance of a single-photon-counting hybrid pixel detector has been investigated at the Australian Synchrotron. Results are compared with the body of accepted analytical models previously validated with other detectors. Detector functionals are valuable for empirical calibration. It is shown that the matching of the detector dead-time with the temporal synchrotron source structure leads to substantial improvements in count rate and linearity of response. Standard implementations are linear up to ∼0.36 MHz pixel(-1); the optimized linearity in this configuration has an extended range up to ∼0.71 MHz pixel(-1); these are further correctable with a transfer function to ∼1.77 MHz pixel(-1). This new approach has wide application both in high-accuracy fundamental experiments and in standard crystallographic X-ray fluorescence and other X-ray measurements. The explicit use of data variance (rather than N(1/2) noise) and direct measures of goodness-of-fit (χ(r)(2)) are introduced, raising issues not encountered in previous literature for any detector, and suggesting that these inadequacies of models may apply to most detector types. Specifically, parametrization of models with non-physical values can lead to remarkable agreement for a range of count-rate, pulse-frequency and temporal structure. However, especially when the dead-time is near resonant with the temporal structure, limitations of these classical models become apparent. Further, a lack of agreement at extreme count rates was evident.

Development of powder diffraction apparatus for small-angle X-ray scattering measurements

A novel type of X-ray collimation system attached to commercial powder diffractometers makes the structural characterization of nanomaterials possible in a wide size range from <0.1 to 100 nm by combination of the small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering techniques. There is no dead interval in the detection between the small- and wide-angle regimes. This device can be attached to any existing `θ/θ' powder diffractometer, providing a multi-functional small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering/diffraction (SWAXS) apparatus. After proper alignment and adjustment, the device can be removed and re-attached at any time to switch between normal and SWAXS functions.

Radiation damage to biological macromolecules: some answers and more questions

Research into radiation damage in macromolecular crystallography has matured over the last few years, resulting in a better understanding of both the processes and timescales involved. In turn this is now allowing practical recommendations for the optimization of crystal dose lifetime to be suggested. Some long-standing questions have been answered by recent investigations, and from these answers new challenges arise and areas of investigation can be proposed. Six papers published in this volume give an indication of some of the current directions of this field and also that of single-particle cryo-microscopy, and the brief summary below places them into the overall framework of ongoing research into macromolecular crystallography radiation damage.

Noise models for low counting rate coherent diffraction imaging

Coherent diffraction imaging (CDI) is a lens-less microscopy method that extracts the complex-valued exit field from intensity measurements alone. It is of particular importance for microscopy imaging with diffraction set-ups where high quality lenses are not available. The inversion scheme allowing the phase retrieval is based on the use of an iterative algorithm. In this work, we address the question of the choice of the iterative process in the case of data corrupted by photon or electron shot noise. Several noise models are presented and further used within two inversion strategies, the ordered subset and the scaled gradient. Based on analytical and numerical analysis together with Monte-Carlo studies, we show that any physical interpretations drawn from a CDI iterative technique require a detailed understanding of the relationship between the noise model and the used inversion method. We observe that iterative algorithms often assume implicitly a noise model. For low counting rates, each noise model behaves differently. Moreover, the used optimization strategy introduces its own artefacts. Based on this analysis, we develop a hybrid strategy which works efficiently in the absence of an informed initial guess. Our work emphasises issues which should be considered carefully when inverting experimental data.

Capturing dynamics with Eiger, a fast-framing X-ray detector

Eiger is the next-generation single-photon-counting pixel detector following the widely used Pilatus detector. Its smaller pixel size of 75 µm × 75 µm, higher frame rate of up to 22 kHz, and practically zero dead-time (~4 µs) between exposures will further various measurement methods at synchrotron sources. In this article Eiger's suitability for X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS) is demonstrated. By exploiting its high frame rate, complementary small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and XPCS data are collected in parallel to determine both the structure factor and collective diffusion coefficient of a nano-colloid suspension. For the first time, correlation times on the submillisecond time scale are accessible with a large-area pixel detector.

X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy using a fast pixel array detector with a grid mask resolution enhancer

The performance of a fast pixel array detector with a grid mask resolution enhancer has been demonstrated for X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS) measurements to investigate fast dynamics on a microscopic scale. A detecting system, in which each pixel of a single-photon-counting pixel array detector, PILATUS, is covered by grid mask apertures, was constructed for XPCS measurements of silica nanoparticles in polymer melts. The experimental results are confirmed to be consistent by comparison with other independent experiments. By applying this method, XPCS measurements can be carried out by customizing the hole size of the grid mask to suit the experimental conditions, such as beam size, detector size and sample-to-detector distance.

Novel energy resolving x-ray pinhole camera on Alcator C-Mod

A new energy resolving x-ray pinhole camera has been recently installed on Alcator C-Mod. This diagnostic is capable of 1D or 2D imaging with a spatial resolution of ≈1 cm, an energy resolution of ≈1 keV in the range of 3.5-15 keV and a maximum time resolution of 5 ms. A novel use of a Pilatus 2 hybrid-pixel x-ray detector [P. Kraft et al., J. Synchrotron Rad. 16, 368 (2009)] is employed in which the lower energy threshold of individual pixels is adjusted, allowing regions of a single detector to be sensitive to different x-ray energy ranges. Development of this new detector calibration technique was done as a collaboration between PPPL and Dectris Ltd. The calibration procedure is described, and the energy resolution of the detector is characterized. Initial data from this installation on Alcator C-Mod is presented. This diagnostic provides line-integrated measurements of impurity emission which can be used to determine impurity concentrations as well as the electron energy distribution.

Layout and results from the initial operation of the high-resolution x-ray imaging crystal spectrometer on the Large Helical Device

First results of ion and electron temperature profile measurements from the x-ray imaging crystal spectrometer (XICS) diagnostic on the Large Helical Device (LHD) are presented. This diagnostic system has been operational since the beginning of the 2011 LHD experimental campaign and is the first application of the XICS diagnostic technique to helical plasma geometry. The XICS diagnostic provides measurements of ion and electron temperature profiles in LHD with a spatial resolution of 2 cm and a maximum time resolution of 5 ms (typically 20 ms). Ion temperature profiles from the XICS diagnostic are possible under conditions where charge exchange recombination spectroscopy (CXRS) is not possible (high density) or is perturbative to the plasma (low density or radio frequency heated plasmas). Measurements are made by using a spherically bent crystal to provide a spectrally resolved 1D image of the plasma from line integrated emission of helium-like Ar(16 +). The final hardware design and configuration are detailed along with the calibration procedures. Line-integrated ion and electron temperature measurements are presented, and the measurement accuracy is discussed. Finally central temperature measurements from the XICS system are compared to measurements from the Thomson scattering and CXRS systems, showing excellent agreement.

Structure of the RBD-PRDI fragment of the antiterminator protein GlcT

GlcT is a transcriptional antiterminator protein that is involved in regulation of glucose metabolism in Bacillus subtilis. Antiterminator proteins bind specific RNA sequences, thus preventing the formation of overlapping terminator stem-loops. The structure of a fragment (residues 3-170) comprising the RNA-binding domain (RBD) and the first regulatory domain (PRDI) of GlcT was solved at 2.0 Å resolution with one molecule in the asymmetric unit. The two domains are connected by a helical linker. Their interface is mostly constituted by hydrophobic interactions.

Invariom modeling of ceftazidime pentahydrate: molecular properties from a 200 second synchrotron microcrystal experiment

The structure of ceftazidime pentahydrate, a third generation cephalosporin antibiotic, is reported. Data collection was carried out in a remarkably short time with synchrotron radiation and the latest detector technology, illustrating that single-crystal X-ray diffraction can be used as a technique for screening hundreds of compounds in a short amount of time. Structure refinement made use of invarioms, namely non-spherical scattering factors, which allow more information to be derived from a diffraction experiment. Properties that can be screened are bond-topological parameters, empirical hydrogen-bond energies, molecular dipole moments and electrostatic potentials.

ID29: a high-intensity highly automated ESRF beamline for macromolecular crystallography experiments exploiting anomalous scattering

ID29 is an ESRF undulator beamline with a routinely accessible energy range of between 20.0 keV and 6.0 keV (λ = 0.62 Å to 2.07 Å) dedicated to the use of anomalous dispersion techniques in macromolecular crystallography. Since the beamline was first commissioned in 2001, ID29 has, in order to provide an improved service to both its academic and proprietary users, been the subject of almost continuous upgrade and refurbishment. It is now also the home to the ESRF Cryobench facility, ID29S. Here, the current status of the beamline is described and plans for its future are briefly outlined.

Improved count rate corrections for highest data quality with PILATUS detectors

The PILATUS detector system is widely used for X-ray experiments at third-generation synchrotrons. It is based on a hybrid technology combining a pixelated silicon sensor with a CMOS readout chip. Its single-photon-counting capability ensures precise and noise-free measurements. The counting mechanism introduces a short dead-time after each hit, which becomes significant for rates above 10(6) photons s(-1) pixel(-1). The resulting loss in the number of counted photons is corrected for by applying corresponding rate correction factors. This article presents the results of a Monte Carlo simulation which computes the correction factors taking into account the detector settings as well as the time structure of the X-ray beam at the synchrotron. The results of the simulation show good agreement with experimentally determined correction factors for various detector settings at different synchrotrons. The application of accurate rate correction factors improves the X-ray data quality acquired at high photon fluxes. Furthermore, it is shown that the use of fast detector settings in combination with an optimized time structure of the X-ray beam allows for measurements up to rates of 10(7) photons s(-1) pixel(-1).

Rapid-access, high-throughput synchrotron crystallography for drug discovery

Synchrotron X-ray sources provide the highest quality crystallographic data for structure-guided drug design. In general, industrial utilization of such sources has been intermittent and occasionally limited. The Lilly Research Laboratories Collaborative Access Team (LRL-CAT) beamline provides a unique alternative to traditional synchrotron use by pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. Crystallographic experiments at LRL-CAT and the results therefrom are integrated directly into the drug discovery process, permitting structural data, including screening of fragment libraries, to be routinely and rapidly used on a daily basis as part of pharmaceutical lead discovery and optimization. Here we describe how LRL-CAT acquires and disseminates the results from protein crystallography to maximize their impact on the development of new potential medicines.

Structures of alkaloid biosynthetic glucosidases decode substrate specificity

Two similar enzymes with different biosynthetic function in one species have evolved to catalyze two distinct reactions. X-ray structures of both enzymes help reveal their most important differences. The Rauvolfia alkaloid biosynthetic network harbors two O-glucosidases: raucaffricine glucosidase (RG), which hydrolyses raucaffricine to an intermediate downstream in the ajmaline pathway, and strictosidine glucosidase (SG), which operates upstream. RG converts strictosidine, the substrate of SG, but SG does not accept raucaffricine. Now elucidation of crystal structures of RG, inactive RG-E186Q mutant, and its complexes with ligands dihydro-raucaffricine and secologanin reveals that it is the "wider gate" of RG that allows strictosidine to enter the catalytic site, whereas the "slot-like" entrance of SG prohibits access by raucaffricine. Trp392 in RG and Trp388 in SG control the gate shape and acceptance of substrates. Ser390 directs the conformation of Trp392. 3D structures, supported by site-directed mutations and kinetic data of RG and SG, provide a structural and catalytic explanation of substrate specificity and deeper insights into O-glucosidase chemistry.

Optimal fine φ-slicing for single-photon-counting pixel detectors

The data-collection parameters used in a macromolecular diffraction experiment have a strong impact on data quality. A careful choice of parameters leads to better data and can make the difference between success and failure in phasing attempts, and will also result in a more accurate atomic model. The selection of parameters has to account for the application of the data in various phasing methods or high-resolution refinement. Furthermore, experimental factors such as crystal characteristics, available experiment time and the properties of the X-ray source and detector have to be considered. For many years, CCD detectors have been the prevalent type of detectors used in macromolecular crystallography. Recently, hybrid pixel X-ray detectors that operate in single-photon-counting mode have become available. These detectors have fundamentally different characteristics compared with CCD detectors and different data-collection strategies should be applied. Fine φ-slicing is a strategy that is particularly well suited to hybrid pixel detectors because of the fast readout time and the absence of readout noise. A large number of data sets were systematically collected from crystals of four different proteins in order to investigate the benefit of fine φ-slicing on data quality with a noise-free detector. The results show that fine φ-slicing can substantially improve scaling statistics and anomalous signal provided that the rotation angle is comparable to half the crystal mosaicity.

Structural insights into the neutralization mechanism of a higher primate antibody against dengue virus

The four serotypes of dengue virus (DENV-1 to -4) cause the most important emerging viral disease. Protein E, the principal viral envelope glycoprotein, mediates fusion of the viral and endosomal membranes during virus entry and is the target of neutralizing antibodies. However, the epitopes of strongly neutralizing human antibodies have not been described despite their importance to vaccine development. The chimpanzee Mab 5H2 potently neutralizes DENV-4 by binding to domain I of E. The crystal structure of Fab 5H2 bound to E from DENV-4 shows that antibody binding prevents formation of the fusogenic hairpin conformation of E, which together with in-vitro assays, demonstrates that 5H2 neutralizes by blocking membrane fusion in the endosome. Furthermore, we show that human sera from patients recovering from DENV-4 infection contain antibodies that bind to the 5H2 epitope region on domain I. This study, thus, provides new information and tools for effective vaccine design to prevent dengue disease.

In situ two-dimensional imaging quick-scanning XAFS with pixel array detector

Quick-scanning X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) measurements were performed in transmission mode using a PILATUS 100K pixel array detector (PAD). The method can display a two-dimensional image for a large area of the order of a centimetre with a spatial resolution of 0.2 mm at each energy point in the XAFS spectrum. The time resolution of the quick-scanning method ranged from 10 s to 1 min per spectrum depending on the energy range. The PAD has a wide dynamic range and low noise, so the obtained spectra have a good signal-to-noise ratio.

A SPECT Camera for Combined MRI and SPECT for Small Animals

We describe an MR-compatible SPECT camera for small animals. The SPECT camera system can be inserted into the bore of a state-of-the-art MRI system and allows researchers to acquire tomographic images from a mouse in-vivo with the MRI and the SPECT acquiring simultaneously. The SPECT system provides functional information, while MRI provides anatomical information. Until today it was impossible to operate conventional SPECT inside the MRI because of mutual interference. The new SPECT technology is based on semiconductor radiation sensors (CZT, ASICs), and it fits into conventional high field MRI systems with a minimum 12-cm bore size. The SPECT camera has an MR-compatible multi-pinhole collimator for mice with a ø25-mm field-of-view. For the work reported here we assembled a prototype SPECT camera system and acquired SPECT and MRI data from radioactive sources and resolution phantoms using the camera outside and inside the MRI.

Unraveling the perplexing structure of the zeolite SSZ-57

Previous high-resolution x-ray powder diffraction and transmission electron microscopy studies of the zeolite SSZ-57 could not fully elucidate the structural basis for its puzzling adsorption behavior, which appears to be intermediate between that of a medium- (10-ring) and a large-pore (12-ring) zeolite. Now by applying advanced crystallographic techniques (structure solution in four-dimensional space and interpretation of three-dimensional diffuse scattering by Monte Carlo simulation) and crystal chemistry considerations to high-quality single-crystal x-ray diffraction data collected on a microcrystal (about 2 micrometers by 2 micrometers by 8 micrometers), we have been able to derive a comprehensive description of its silicate framework structure. The framework is related to that of ZSM-11 but is commensurately modulated along the c axis (P4m2, a = b = 20.091 Å, c = 110.056 Å) to yield a structure with a 12-ring:10-ring ratio of 1:15. Disorder of the 12-rings results in a three-dimensional 10-ring channel system with large isolated pockets. The structure helps to clarify the material's catalytic activity.

X-ray crystallography: Assessment and validation of protein-small molecule complexes for drug discovery

INTRODUCTION: Crystallography is the key initial component for structure-based and fragment-based drug design and can often generate leads that can be developed into high potency drugs. Therefore, huge sums of money are committed based on the outcome of crystallography experiments and their interpretation. AREAS COVERED: This review discusses how to evaluate the correctness of an X-ray structure, focusing on the validation of small molecule-protein complexes. Various types of inaccuracies found within the PDB are identified and the ramifications of these errors are discussed. The reader will gain an understanding of the key parameters that need to be inspected before a structure can be used in drug discovery efforts, as well as an appreciation of the difficulties of correctly interpreting electron density for small molecules. The reader will also be introduced to methods for validating small molecules within the context of a macromolecular structure. EXPERT OPINION: One of the reasons that ligand identification and positioning, within a macromolecular crystal structure, is so difficult is that the quality of small molecules widely varies in the PDB. For this reason, the PDB can not always be considered a reliable repository of structural information pertaining to small molecules, and this makes the derivation of general principles that govern small molecule-protein interactions more difficult.

Automatic loop centring with a high-precision goniometer head at the SLS macromolecular crystallography beamlines

Automatic loop centring has been developed as part of the automation process in crystallographic data collection at the Swiss Light Source. The procedure described here consists of an optional set-up part, in which the background images are taken, and the actual centring part. The algorithm uses boundary and centre-of-mass detection at two different microscope image magnifications. Micromounts can be handled as well. Centring of the loops can be achieved in 15-26s, depending on their initial position, and as fast as manual centring. The alignment of the sample is carried out by means of a new flexural-hinge-based compact goniometer head. The device features an electromagnet for robotic wet mounting of samples. The circle of confusion was measured to be smaller than 1 µm (r.m.s.); its bidirectional backlash is below 2 µm.

Small-angle solution scattering using the mixed-mode pixel array detector

Solution small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements were obtained using a 128 × 128 pixel X-ray mixed-mode pixel array detector (MMPAD) with an 860 µs readout time. The MMPAD offers advantages for SAXS experiments: a pixel full-well of >2 × 10(7) 10 keV X-rays, a maximum flux rate of 10(8) X-rays pixel(-1) s(-1), and a sub-pixel point-spread function. Data from the MMPAD were quantitatively compared with data from a charge-coupled device (CCD) fiber-optically coupled to a phosphor screen. MMPAD solution SAXS data from lysozyme solutions were of equal or better quality than data captured by the CCD. The read-noise (normalized by pixel area) of the MMPAD was less than that of the CCD by an average factor of 3.0. Short sample-to-detector distances were required owing to the small MMPAD area (19.2 mm × 19.2 mm), and were revealed to be advantageous with respect to detector read-noise. As predicted by the Shannon sampling theory and confirmed by the acquisition of lysozyme solution SAXS curves, the MMPAD at short distances is capable of sufficiently sampling a solution SAXS curve for protein shape analysis. The readout speed of the MMPAD was demonstrated by continuously monitoring lysozyme sample evolution as radiation damage accumulated. These experiments prove that a small suitably configured MMPAD is appropriate for time-resolved solution scattering measurements.

A small-angle scattering chamber for x-ray photon correlation spectroscopy at low temperatures

A low temperature sample environment for x-ray photon correlation spectroscopy measurements in small-angle scattering geometry is presented. The chamber has been designed to allow investigations of dynamical phenomena in supercooled liquids and the typical working temperature range is 110-330 K with a thermal stability ΔT/T down to 10(-4). A variable external magnetic field up to 0.12 T can be applied, which is of interest in studies of, e.g., ferrofluids and liquid crystalline materials. Here, technical details about the sample environment are given together with examples of recent applications.

Combining biophysical screening and X-ray crystallography for fragment-based drug discovery

Over the past decade, fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) has gained importance for the generation of novel ideas to inspire synthetic chemistry. In order to identify small molecules that bind to a target protein, multiple approaches have been utilized by various groups in the pharmaceutical industry and by academic groups. The combination of fragment screening by biophysical methods and in particular with surface plasmon resonance technologies (SPR) together with the visualization of the binding properties by X-ray crystallography offers a number of benefits. Screening by SPR identifies ligands for a target protein as well as provides an assessment of the binding properties with respect to affinity, stoichiometry, and specificity of the interaction. Despite the huge technology advances of the past years, X-ray crystallography is still a resource-intensive technology, and SPR binding data provides excellent measures to prioritize X-ray experiments and consequently enable a better success rate in obtaining structural information. Information on the chemical structures of fragments binding to a protein can be used to perform similarity searches in compound libraries in order to establish structure-activity relationships as well as to explore particular scaffolds. At Roche we have applied this workflow for a number of targets and the experiences will be outlined in this review.

Reconstruction of an astigmatic hard X-ray beam and alignment of K-B mirrors from ptychographic coherent diffraction data

We have used coherent X-ray diffraction experiments to characterize both the 1-D and 2-D foci produced by nanofocusing Kirkpatrick-Baez (K-B) mirrors, and we find agreement. Algorithms related to ptychography were used to obtain a 3-D reconstruction of a focused hard X-ray beam waist, using data measured when the mirrors were not optimally aligned. Considerable astigmatism was evident in the reconstructed complex wavefield. Comparing the reconstructed wavefield for a single mirror with a geometrical projection of the wavefront errors expected from optical metrology data allowed us to diagnose a 40 μrad misalignment in the incident angle of the first mirror, which had occurred during the experiment. Good agreement between the reconstructed wavefront obtained from the X-ray data and off-line metrology data obtained with visible light demonstrates the usefulness of the technique as a metrology and alignment tool for nanofocusing X-ray optics.

Macromolecular crystallography at synchrotron radiation sources: current status and future developments

X-ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation (SR) has revealed the atomic structures of numerous biological macromolecules including proteins and protein complexes, nucleic acids and their protein complexes, viruses, membrane proteins and drug targets. The bright SR X-ray beam with its small divergence has made the study of weakly diffracting crystals of large biological molecules possible. The ability to tune the wavelength of the SR beam to the absorption edge of certain elements has allowed anomalous scattering to be exploited for phase determination. We review the developments at synchrotron sources and beamlines from the early days to the present time, and discuss the significance of the results in providing a deeper understanding of the biological function, the design of new therapeutic molecules and time-resolved studies of dynamic events using pump–probe techniques. Radiation damage, a problem with bright X-ray sources, has been partially alleviated by collecting data at low temperature (100 K) but work is ongoing. In the most recent development, free electron laser sources can offer a peak brightness of hard X-rays approximately 10 8 times brighter than that achieved at SR sources. We describe briefly how early experiments at FLASH and Linear Coherent Light Source have shown exciting possibilities for the future.

Objectives and layout of a high-resolution x-ray imaging crystal spectrometer for the large helical device

A high-resolution x-ray imaging crystal spectrometer, whose concept was tested on NSTX and Alcator C-Mod, is being designed for the large helical device (LHD). This instrument will record spatially resolved spectra of helium-like Ar(16+) and will provide ion temperature profiles with spatial and temporal resolutions of <2 cm and ≥10 ms, respectively. The spectrometer layout and instrumental features are largely determined by the magnetic field structure of LHD. The stellarator equilibrium reconstruction codes, STELLOPT and PIES, will be used for the tomographic inversion of the spectral data.

Mammalian cell expression, purification, crystallization and microcrystal data collection of autotaxin/ENPP2, a secreted mammalian glycoprotein

Autotaxin (ATX or ENPP2) is a secreted glycosylated mammalian enzyme that exhibits lysophospholipase D activity, hydrolyzing lysophosphatidylcholine to the signalling lipid lysophosphatidic acid. ATX is an approximately 100 kDa multi-domain protein encompassing two N-terminal somatomedin B-like domains, a central catalytic phosphodiesterase domain and a C-terminal nuclease-like domain. Protocols for the efficient expression of ATX from stably transfected mammalian HEK293 cells in amounts sufficient for crystallographic studies are reported. Purification resulted in protein that crystallized readily, but various attempts to grow crystals suitable in size for routine crystallographic structure determination were not successful. However, the available micrometre-thick plates diffracted X-rays beyond 2.0 A resolution and allowed the collection of complete diffraction data to about 2.6 A resolution. The problems encountered and the current advantages and limitations of diffraction data collection from thin crystal plates are discussed.

Crystal structure and ligand binding of the MID domain of a eukaryotic Argonaute protein

Argonaute (AGO) proteins are core components of RNA-induced silencing complexes and have essential roles in RNA-mediated gene silencing. They are characterized by a bilobal architecture, consisting of one lobe containing the amino-terminal and PAZ domains and another containing the MID and PIWI domains. Except for the PAZ domain, structural information on eukaryotic AGO domains is not yet available. In this study, we report the crystal structure of the MID domain of the eukaryotic AGO protein QDE-2 from Neurospora crassa. This domain adopts a Rossmann-like fold and recognizes the 5'-terminal nucleotide of a guide RNA in a manner similar to its prokaryotic counterparts. The 5'-nucleotide-binding site shares common residues with a second, adjacent ligand-binding site, suggesting a mechanism for the cooperative binding of ligands to the MID domain of eukaryotic AGOs.

Directional x-ray dark-field imaging

We introduce a novel x-ray imaging approach that yields information about the local texture of structures smaller than the image pixel resolution inside an object. The approach is based on a recently developed x-ray dark-field imaging technique, using scattering from sub-micron structures in the sample. We show that the method can be used to determine the local angle and degree of orientation of bone, and fibers in a leaf. As the method is based on the use of a conventional x-ray tube we believe that it can have a great impact on medical diagnostics and non-destructive testing applications.

From diffraction to imaging: New avenues in studying hierarchical biological tissues with x-ray microbeams (Review)

Load bearing biological materials such as bone or arthropod cuticle have optimized mechanical properties which are due to their hierarchical structure ranging from the atomic/molecular level up to macroscopic length scales. Structural investigations of such materials require new experimental techniques with position resolution ideally covering several length scales. Beside light and electron microscopy, synchrotron radiation based x-ray imaging techniques offer excellent possibilities in this respect, ranging from full field imaging with absorption or phase contrast to x-ray microbeam scanning techniques. A particularly useful approach for the study of biological tissues is the combination x-ray microbeam scanning with nanostructural information obtained from x-ray scattering [small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) and wide-angle x-ray scattering (WAXS)]. This combination allows constructing quantitative images of nanostructural parameters with micrometer scanning resolution, and hence, covers two length scales at once. The present article reviews recent scanning microbeam SAXS/WAXS work on bone and some other biological tissues with particular emphasis on the imaging capability of the method. The current status of instrumentation and experimental possibilities is also discussed, and a short outlook about actual and desirable future developments in the field is given.

Spt4/5 stimulates transcription elongation through the RNA polymerase clamp coiled-coil motif

Spt5 is the only known RNA polymerase-associated factor that is conserved in all three domains of life. We have solved the structure of the Methanococcus jannaschii Spt4/5 complex by X-ray crystallography, and characterized its function and interaction with the archaeal RNAP in a wholly recombinant in vitro transcription system. Archaeal Spt4 and Spt5 form a stable complex that associates with RNAP independently of the DNA–RNA scaffold of the elongation complex. The association of Spt4/5 with RNAP results in a stimulation of transcription processivity, both in the absence and the presence of the non-template strand. A domain deletion analysis reveals the molecular anatomy of Spt4/5—the Spt5 Nus-G N-terminal (NGN) domain is the effector domain of the complex that both mediates the interaction with RNAP and is essential for its elongation activity. Using a mutagenesis approach, we have identified a hydrophobic pocket on the Spt5 NGN domain as binding site for RNAP, and reciprocally the RNAP clamp coiled-coil motif as binding site for Spt4/5.

X-ray microdiffraction analysis of radiation-induced defects in single grains of polycrystalline Fe

Single-crystal diffuse X-ray scattering was used to characterize radiation-induced defects in individual grains of a polycrystalline proton-irradiated Fe foil. The grains were probed with an intense 1 microm X-ray beam to demonstrate that both polycrystalline and micrometer-scale samples can be studied with single-crystal-like signal-to-noise. Scattering was measured with an X-ray-sensitive area detector, which measures intensity over a surface in reciprocal space. By scanning the X-ray energy, the intensity was measured over reciprocal-space volumes. Since the sample is not rotated, the real-space scattering volume does not change. Methods to minimize experimental artifacts arising from the use of an area detector are described.

Origin and temperature dependence of radiation damage in biological samples at cryogenic temperatures

Radiation damage is the major impediment for obtaining structural information from biological samples by using ionizing radiation such as x-rays or electrons. The knowledge of underlying processes especially at cryogenic temperatures is still fragmentary, and a consistent mechanism has not been found yet. By using a combination of single-crystal x-ray diffraction, small-angle scattering, and qualitative and quantitative radiolysis experiments, we show that hydrogen gas, formed inside the sample during irradiation, rather than intramolecular bond cleavage between non-hydrogen atoms, is mainly responsible for the loss of high-resolution information and contrast in diffraction experiments and microscopy. The experiments that are presented in this paper cover a temperature range between 5 and 160 K and reveal that the commonly used temperature in x-ray crystallography of 100 K is not optimal in terms of minimizing radiation damage and thereby increasing the structural information obtainable in a single experiment. At 50 K, specific radiation damage to disulfide bridges is reduced by a factor of 4 compared to 100 K, and samples can tolerate a factor of 2.6 and 3.9 higher dose, as judged by the increase of R(free) values of elastase and cubic insulin crystals, respectively.