ftsZ is an essential cell division gene in Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli division inhibitor MinCD blocks septation by preventing Z-ring formation

The min system spatially regulates division through the topological regulation of MinCD, an inhibitor of cell division. MinCD was previously shown to inhibit division by preventing assembly of the Z ring (E. Bi and J. Lutkenhaus, J. Bacteriol. 175:1118-1125, 1993); however, this was questioned in a recent report (S. S. Justice, J. Garcia-Lara, and L. I. Rothfield, Mol. Microbiol. 37:410-423, 2000) which indicated that MinCD acted after Z-ring formation and prevented the recruitment of FtsA to the Z ring. This discrepancy was due in part to alternative fixation conditions. We have therefore reinvestigated the action of MinCD and avoided fixation by using green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to division proteins. MinCD prevented the localization of both FtsZ-GFP and ZipA-GFP, consistent with it preventing Z-ring assembly. Consistent with a direct interaction between FtsZ and the MinCD inhibitor, we find that increased FtsZ, but not FtsA, suppresses MinCD-induced lethality. Furthermore, strains carrying various alleles of ftsZ, selected on the basis of resistance to the inhibitor SulA, displayed variable resistance to MinCD. These results are consistent with FtsZ as the target of MinCD and confirm that this inhibitor prevents Z-ring assembly.

HscA is involved in the dynamics of FtsZ-ring formation in Escherichia coli K12

BACKGROUND

FtsZ, a homologue of eukaryotic tubulin, localizes throughout the cytoplasm in non-dividing Escherichia coli. However, it assembles in cytokinetic rings at the early stages of septation. Factors controlling the dynamics of FtsZ ring formation are unknown, and the molecular mechanism governing these dynamics is yet to be determined.

RESULTS

At 42 degrees C, JE10715 mutant bacteria formed multinucleated filaments with a highly reduced number of FtsZ-rings at potential division sites. The JE10715 phenotype resulted from a mis-sense mutation in the hscA gene which encodes a heat shock Hsp70 family protein, with a single alanine-to-valine substitution at position 192 within the ATPase domain. Both JE10715 and the hscA knockout strain of JE10715 were completely complemented by a plasmid-born, wild-type hscA gene, but not by a mutant-type hscA715 gene. An hscA conditional knockout of the wild-type strain under non-permissive conditions exhibited longer rod cells with an abnormal localization of FtsZ. The over-expression of dnaK partially complemented the JE10715 mutation. In vitro, the ATPase activity of the mutant protein HscA715 was reduced to 63% of wild-type HscA activity. HscA co-sedimented with FtsZ-polymers in the presence of GTP.

CONCLUSION

HscA is involved in FtsZ-ring formation, through a chaperon-like interaction with FtsZ. Defects in hscA, however, can partially be compensated for by redundant genes, including the wild-type dnaK.

Differential regulation of ftsZ transcription during septation of Streptomyces griseus

Streptomyces has been known to form two types of septa. The data in this research demonstrated that Streptomyces griseus forms another type of septum near the base of sporogenic hyphae (basal septum). To understand the regulation of the septation machinery in S. griseus, we investigated the expression of the ftsZ gene. S1 nuclease protection assays revealed that four ftsZ transcripts were differentially expressed during morphological differentiation. The vegetative transcript (emanating from P(veg)) is present at a moderate level during vegetative growth, but is switched off within the first 2 h of sporulation. Two sporulation-specific transcripts predominantly accumulated, and the levels increased by approximately fivefold together shortly before sporulation septa begin to form. Consistently, the sporulation-specific transcripts were expressed much earlier and more abundantly in a group of nonsporulating mutants that form their sporulation septa prematurely. Promoter-probe studies with two different reporter systems confirmed the activities of the putative promoters identified from the 5' end point of the transcripts. The levels and expression timing of promoter activities were consistent with the results of nuclease protection assays. The aseptate phenotype of the P(spo) mutant indicated that the increased transcription from P(spo) is required for sporulation septation, but not for vegetative or basal septum formation.

Acquirement of cold sensitivity by quadruple deletion of the cspA family and its suppression by PNPase S1 domain in Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli contains a large CspA family, CspA to CspI. Here, we demonstrate that E. coli is highly protected against cold-shock stress, as these CspA homologues existed at approximately a total of two million molecules per cell at low temperature and growth defect was not observed until four csp genes (cspA, cspB, cspE and cspG) were deleted. The quadruple-deletion strain acquired cold sensitivity and formed filamentous cells at 15 degrees C although chromosomes were normally segregated. The cold-sensitivity and filamentation phenotypes were suppressed by all members of the CspA family except for CspD, which causes lethality upon overexpression. Interestingly, the cold sensitivity of the mutant was also suppressed by the S1 domain of polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase), which also folds into a beta-barrel structure similar to that of CspA. The present results show that cold-shock proteins and S1 domains share not only the tertiary structural similarity but also common functional properties, suggesting that these seemingly distinct protein categories may have evolved from a common primordial RNA-binding protein.

A putatively phase variable gene (dca) required for natural competence in Neisseria gonorrhoeae but not Neisseria meningitidis is located within the division cell wall (dcw) gene cluster

A cluster of 18 open reading frames (ORFs), 15 of which are homologous to genes involved in division and cell wall synthesis, has been identified in Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Neisseria meningitidis. The three additional ORFs, internal to the dcw cluster, are not homologous to dcw-related genes present in other bacterial species. Analysis of the N. meningitidis strain MC58 genome for foreign DNA suggests that these additional ORFs have not been acquired by recent horizontal exchange, indicating that they are a long-standing, integral part of the neisserial dcw gene cluster. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis of RNA extracted from N. gonorrhoeae strain FA19 confirmed that all three ORFs are transcribed in gonococci. One of these ORFs (dca, for division cluster competence associated), located between murE and murF, was studied in detail and found to be essential for competence in the gonococcal but not in the meningococcal strains tested. Computer analysis predicts that dca encodes an inner membrane protein similar to hypothetical proteins produced by other gram-negative bacteria. In some meningococcal strains dca is prematurely terminated following a homopolymeric tract of G's, the length of which differs between isolates of N. meningitidis, suggesting that dca is phase variable in this species. A deletion and insertional mutation was made in the dca gene of N. gonorrhoeae strain FA19 and N. meningitidis strain NMB. This mutation abrogated the ability of the gonococci to be transformed with chromosomal DNA. Thus, we conclude that the dca-encoded gene product is an essential competence factor for gonococci.

Themes and variations in prokaryotic cell division

Perhaps the biggest single task facing a bacterial cell is to divide into daughter cells that contain the normal complement of chromosomes. Recent technical and conceptual breakthroughs in bacterial cell biology, combined with the flood of genome sequence information and the excellent genetic tools in several model systems, have shed new light on the mechanism of prokaryotic cell division. There is good evidence that in most species, a molecular machine, organized by the tubulin-like FtsZ protein, assembles at the site of division and orchestrates the splitting of the cell. The determinants that target the machine to the right place at the right time are beginning to be understood in the model systems, but it is still a mystery how the machine actually generates the constrictive force necessary for cytokinesis. Moreover, although some cell division determinants such as FtsZ are present in a broad spectrum of prokaryotic species, the lack of FtsZ in some species and different profiles of cell division proteins in different families suggests that there are diverse mechanisms for regulating cell division.

Control of division gene expression in Escherichia coli

Duplication of the Escherichia coli bacterial cell culminates in the formation of a division septum that splits the progenitor cell into two identical daughter cells. Invagination of the cell envelope is brought about by the co-ordinated interplay of a family of septation-specific proteins that act locally at mid-cell at a specific time in the cell cycle. The majority of the genes known to be required for septum formation are found within the large mra cluster located at 2 min on the E. coli genetic map (nucleotides 89552-107474). Examination of the controls exerted on the mra operon shows that E. coli uses an extraordinary range of strategies to co-ordinate the expression of the cell division genes with respect to each other and to the cell cycle.

Molecular interplay of murein synthases and murein hydrolases in Escherichia coli

Affinity chromatography using different lytic transglycosylases as a specific ligand revealed an interaction of both murein hydrolases and murein synthases. This interaction is taken as evidence for the assemblage into a multienzyme complex that could function as a murein replicase precisely copying the given three-dimensional structure of the murein sacculus. The sacculus of the mother cell would function as a template, which is identically replicated by copying the lengths of the existing glycan strands and the pattern of crosslinkages. A hypothetical enzyme complex specifically involved in cell division and a complex specifically involved in cell elongation are presented. It is postulated that PBPs 1a and/or 1b are present in both complexes, whereas the presence of PBP2 or PBP3 defines the specificity of the murein-synthesizing machinery as being involved in either cell elongation or septation. Moreover, the proposed "holoenzyme" suprastructure could explain why the specific inhibition of PBPs 1a/1b results in bacteriolysis and why inhibition of PBP2 and PBP3 causes the well-known morphological alterations, spherical growth, and filamentation, respectively.

Identification of an antigen localized to an apparent septum within dividing chlamydiae

The process of chlamydial cell division has not been thoroughly investigated. The lack of detectable peptidoglycan and the absence of an FtsZ homolog within chlamydiae suggest an unusual mechanism for the division process. Our laboratory has identified an antigen (SEP antigen) localized to a ring-like structure at the apparent septum within dividing chlamydial reticulate bodies (RB). Antisera directed against SEP show similar patterns of antigen distribution in Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydia psittaci RB. In contrast to localization in RB, SEP in elementary bodies appears diffuse and irregular, suggesting that the distribution of the antigen is developmental-stage specific. Treatment of chlamydiae with inhibitors of peptidoglycan synthesis or culture of chlamydiae in medium lacking tryptophan leads to the formation of nondividing, aberrant RB. Staining of aberrant RB with anti-SEP reveals a marked redistribution of the antigen. Within C. trachomatis-infected cells, ampicillin treatment leads to high levels of SEP accumulation at the periphery of aberrant RB, while in C. psittaci, treatment causes SEP to localize to distinct punctate sites within the bacteria. Aberrancy produced via tryptophan depletion results in a different pattern of SEP distribution. In either case, the reversal of aberrant formation results in the production of normal RB and a redistribution of SEP to the apparent plane of bacterial division. Collectively these studies identify a unique chlamydial-genus-common and developmental-stage-specific antigen that may be associated with RB division.

Genetic and functional analyses of the conserved C-terminal core domain of Escherichia coli FtsZ

In Escherichia coli, FtsZ is required for the recruitment of the essential cell division proteins FtsA and ZipA to the septal ring. Several C-terminal deletions of E. coli FtsZ, including one of only 12 amino acids that removes the highly conserved C-terminal core domain, failed to complement chromosomal ftsZ mutants when expressed on a plasmid. To identify key individual residues within the core domain, six highly conserved residues were replaced with alanines. All but one of these mutants (D373A) failed to complement an ftsZ chromosomal mutant. Immunoblot analysis demonstrated that whereas I374A and F377A proteins were unstable in the cell, L372A, D373A, P375A, and L378A proteins were synthesized at normal levels, suggesting that they were specifically defective in some aspect of FtsZ function. In addition, all four of the stable mutant proteins were able to localize and form rings at potential division sites in chromosomal ftsZ mutants, implying a defect in a function other than localization and multimerization. Because another proposed function of FtsZ is the recruitment of FtsA and ZipA, we tested whether the C-terminal core domain was important for interactions with these proteins. Using two different in vivo assays, we found that the 12-amino-acid truncation of FtsZ was defective in binding to FtsA. Furthermore, two point mutants in this region (L372A and P375A) showed weakened binding to FtsA. In contrast, ZipA was capable of binding to all four stable point mutants in the FtsZ C-terminal core but not to the 12-amino-acid deletion.

On the origin of branches in Escherichia coli

Some Escherichia coli strains with impaired cell division form branched cells at high frequencies during certain growth conditions. Here, we show that neither FtsI nor FtsZ activity is required for the development of branches. Buds did not form at specific positions along the cell surface during high-branching conditions. Antibiotics affecting cell wall synthesis had a positive effect on branch formation in the case of ampicillin, cephalexin, and penicillin G, whereas mecillinam and D-cycloserine had no substantial effect. Altering the cell morphology by nutritional shifts showed that changes in morphology preceded branching, indicating that the cell's physiological state rather than specific medium components induced branching. Finally, there was no increased probability for bud formation in the daughters of a cell with a bud or branch, showing that bud formation is a random event. We suggest that branch formation is caused by abnormalities in cell wall elongation rather than by aberrant cell division events.

Redundant in vivo proteolytic activities of Escherichia coli Lon and the ClpYQ (HslUV) protease

The ClpYQ (HslUV) ATP-dependent protease of Escherichia coli consists of an ATPase subunit closely related to the Clp ATPases and a protease component related to those found in the eukaryotic proteasome. We found that this protease has a substrate specificity overlapping that of the Lon protease, another ATP-dependent protease in which a single subunit contains both the proteolytic active site and the ATPase. Lon is responsible for the degradation of the cell division inhibitor SulA; lon mutants are UV sensitive, due to the stabilization of SulA. lon mutants are also mucoid, due to the stabilization of another Lon substrate, the positive regulator of capsule transcription, RcsA. The overproduction of ClpYQ suppresses both of these phenotypes, and the suppression of UV sensitivity is accompanied by a restoration of the rapid degradation of SulA. Inactivation of the chromosomal copy of clpY or clpQ leads to further stabilization of SulA in a lon mutant but not in lon+ cells. While either lon, lon clpY, or lon clpQ mutants are UV sensitive at low temperatures, at elevated temperatures the lon mutant loses its UV sensitivity, while the double mutants do not. Therefore, the degradation of SulA by ClpYQ at elevated temperatures is sufficient to lead to UV resistance. Thus, a protease with a structure and an active site different from those of Lon is capable of recognizing and degrading two different Lon substrates and appears to act as a backup for Lon under certain conditions.

New cloning vectors with temperature-sensitive replication

A series of cloning vectors with conditional, temperature-sensitive replication that are selectable with ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and kanamycin has been constructed. These vectors are derivatives of a pSC101 mutant that can replicate only at low temperatures. The cloning vectors carry a number of unique restriction sites and provide for screening of recombinant plasmids by alpha complementation. These vectors have proven useful for a variety of applications where conditional replication of a recombinant plasmid is desired.

Crystal structure determination of FtsZ from Methanococcus jannaschii

FtsZ is the polymer-forming protein of bacterial cell division. It is part of a ring in the middle of the dividing cell that is required for constriction of cell membrane and cell envelope to yield two daughter cells. FtsZ is a GTPase and is the only bacterial protein showing significant sequence homology to the eukaryotic tubulins. FtsZ can polymerize into tubes, sheets, and rings in vitro and is ubiquitous in eubacteria and archaea. Full-length FtsZ1 from Methanococcus jannaschii has been over expressed in Escherichia coli, employing the hyperthermophilic properties of the protein. Crystals grown from PEG400 and ethanol belong to spacegroup I213 with a = b = c = 159.1 A. Isomorphous replacement using one Hg derivative yielded a interpretable electron density map at 4 A resolution. The structure for residues 23-356 and one GDP has been refined to an Rfree of 0.28 (Rf = 0.20) at 2.8 A resolution. FtsZ consists of two domains with a connecting core helix. The N-terminal domain and the core helix contain all residues involved in nucleotide binding and resemble the fold of dinucleotide-binding proteins. The structures of tubulin and FtsZ show striking similarity; together with the functional similarities, this provides a strong indication that FtsZ is a true homolog of tubulin.

Cell division genes ftsQAZ in Escherichia coli require distant cis-acting signals upstream of ddlB for full expression

A transcriptional reporter fusion has been introduced into the chromosomal ftsZ locus in such a way that all transcription that normally reaches ftsZ can be monitored. The new Phi(ftsZ-lacZ ) fusion yields four times more beta-galactosidase activity than a ddlB-ftsQAZ-lacZ fusion on a lambda prophage vector. A strongly polar ddlB ::Omega insertion prevents contributions from signals upstream of the ftsQAZ promoters and decreases transcription of the chromosomal Phi(ftsZ-lacZ ) fusion by 66%, demonstrating that around two-thirds of total ftsZ transcription require cis-acting elements upstream of ddlB. We suggest that those elements are distant promoters, and thus that the cell division and cell wall synthesis genes in the dcw gene cluster are to a large extent co-transcribed. The ddlB ::Omega insertion is lethal unless additional copies of ftsQA are provided or a compensatory decrease in FtsZ synthesis is made. This shows that ddlB is a dispensable gene, and reinforces the critical role of the FtsA/FtsZ ratio in septation. Using the new reporter fusion, it is demonstrated that ftsZ expression is not autoregulated.

Linkage map of Escherichia coli K-12, edition 10: the traditional map

This map is an update of the edition 9 map by Berlyn et al. (M. K. B. Berlyn, K. B. Low, and K. E. Rudd, p. 1715-1902, in F. C. Neidhardt et al., ed., Escherichia coli and Salmonella: cellular and molecular biology, 2nd ed., vol. 2, 1996). It uses coordinates established by the completed sequence, expressed as 100 minutes for the entire circular map, and adds new genes discovered and established since 1996 and eliminates those shown to correspond to other known genes. The latter are included as synonyms. An alphabetical list of genes showing map location, synonyms, the protein or RNA product of the gene, phenotypes of mutants, and reference citations is provided. In addition to genes known to correspond to gene sequences, other genes, often older, that are described by phenotype and older mapping techniques and that have not been correlated with sequences are included.

Contribution of the Pmra promoter to expression of genes in the Escherichia coli mra cluster of cell envelope biosynthesis and cell division genes

Recently, a promoter for the essential gene ftsI, which encodes penicillin-binding protein 3 of Escherichia coli, was precisely localized 1.9 kb upstream from this gene, at the beginning of the mra cluster of cell division and cell envelope biosynthesis genes (H. Hara, S. Yasuda, K. Horiuchi, and J. T. Park, J. Bacteriol. 179:5802-5811, 1997). Disruption of this promoter (Pmra) on the chromosome and its replacement by the lac promoter (Pmra::Plac) led to isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)-dependent cells that lysed in the absence of inducer, a defect which was complemented only when the whole region from Pmra to ftsW, the fifth gene downstream from ftsI, was provided in trans on a plasmid. In the present work, the levels of various proteins involved in peptidoglycan synthesis and cell division were precisely determined in cells in which Pmra::Plac promoter expression was repressed or fully induced. It was confirmed that the Pmra promoter is required for expression of the first nine genes of the mra cluster: mraZ (orfC), mraW (orfB), ftsL (mraR), ftsI, murE, murF, mraY, murD, and ftsW. Interestingly, three- to sixfold-decreased levels of MurG and MurC enzymes were observed in uninduced Pmra::Plac cells. This was correlated with an accumulation of the nucleotide precursors UDP-N-acetylglucosamine and UDP-N-acetylmuramic acid, substrates of these enzymes, and with a depletion of the pool of UDP-N-acetylmuramyl pentapeptide, resulting in decreased cell wall peptidoglycan synthesis. Moreover, the expression of ftsZ, the penultimate gene from this cluster, was significantly reduced when Pmra expression was repressed. It was concluded that the transcription of the genes located downstream from ftsW in the mra cluster, from murG to ftsZ, is also mainly (but not exclusively) dependent on the Pmra promoter.

Localization and function of early cell division proteins in filamentous Escherichia coli cells lacking phosphatidylethanolamine

Escherichia coli cells that contain the pss-93 null mutation are completely deficient in the major membrane phospholipid phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Such cells are defective in cell division. To gain insight into how a phospholipid defect could block cytokinesis, we used fluorescence techniques on whole cells to investigate which step of the cell division cycle was affected. Several proteins essential for early steps in cytokinesis, such as FtsZ, ZipA, and FtsA, were able to localize as bands to potential division sites in pss-93 filaments, indicating that the generation and localization of potential division sites was not grossly affected by the absence of PE. However, there was no evidence of constriction at most of these potential division sites. FtsZ and green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to FtsZ and ZipA often formed spiral structures in these mutant filaments. This is the first report of spirals formed by wild-type FtsZ expressed at normal levels and by ZipA-GFP. The results suggest that the lack of PE may affect the correct interaction of FtsZ with membrane nucleation sites and alter FtsZ ring structure so as to prevent or delay its constriction.

An Escherichia coli gene (yaeO) suppresses temperature-sensitive mutations in essential genes by modulating Rho-dependent transcription termination

An extragenic multicopy suppressor of the cell division inhibition caused by a MalE-MinE fusion protein in Escherichia coli has been mapped and identified as yaeO, one of the two short open reading frames (ORFs) of an operon located at 4.6 min. Overexpressed yaeO also suppressed some temperature-sensitive mutations in division genes ftsA and ftsQ, in chaperone gene groEL and in co-chaperone gene grpE. Gene yaeO, whose expression is regulated by growth rate, codes for a 9 kDa acidic protein with no obvious resemblance to other proteins. Transcription termination protein Rho co-purified with a histidine-tagged derivative of YaeO protein on Ni2+-NTA agarose columns in a manner that suggested direct YaeO-Rho interaction. In vivo, yaeO expression reduced termination at rho-dependent bacteriophage terminator tL1 and at the terminator of autogenously regulated gene rho. The suppression of temperature-sensitive phenotypes was a consequence of anti-termination, as it could be mimicked by a Prho::Tn10 mutation that reduces the expression and activity of gene rho. Our data indicate that the suppression is not caused by overexpression of the mutated genes, but presumably by indirect stabilization of the mutated proteins.

Analysis of the effect of ppGpp on the ftsQAZ operon in Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli loses its rod shape by inactivation of PBP2 (penicillin-binding protein 2), target of the beta-lactam mecillinam. Under these conditions, cell division is blocked in rich medium. Division in the absence of PBP2 activity is restored (and resistance to mecillinam is conferred) when the three cell division proteins FtsQ, FtsA and FtsZ are overproduced, but not when only one or two of them are overproduced. Division in the absence of PBP2 activity is also restored by a doubling in the ppGpp pool, as in the argS201 mutant. However, the nucleotide ppGpp, a transcriptional regulator of many operons, does not govern any of the five promoters of the ftsQAZoperon, as shown by S1 mapping of ftsQAZ mRNA 5' ends in exponentially growing wild-type cells in the mecillinam-resistant argS201 mutant (intermediate ppGpp level) or during the stringent response elicited by isoleucine starvation (high ppGpp level). Furthermore, the concentration of FtsZ protein is not increased in exponentially growing mecillinam-resistant argS201 cells. These results show that the ftsQAZ operon is not the ppGpp target responsible for mecillinam resistance. We are currently trying to identify those targets that, at intermediate ppGpp levels, allow cells to divide as spheres in the absence of PBP2.

The Bacillus SpoIIGA protein is targeted to sites of spore septum formation in a SpoIIE-independent manner

The process of bacterial cell division involves the assembly of a complex of proteins at the site of septation that probably provides both the structural and the cytokinetic functions required for elaboration and closure of the septal annulus. During sporulation in Bacillus subtilis, this complex of proteins is modified by the inclusion of a sporulation-specific protein, SpoIIE, which plays a direct role in gene regulation and also has a genetically separable role in determining the gross structural properties of the specialized sporulation septum. We demonstrate by both green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions and indirect immunofluorescence microscopy that SpoIIGA, a protein required for proteolytic cleavage of pro-sigmaE, is also targeted to the sporulation septum. Septal localization of SpoIIGA-GFP occurred even in the structurally abnormal septum formed by a SpoIIE null mutant. We also report the isolation of a spoIIGA homologue from Bacillus megaterium, a species in which the cells are significantly larger than those of B. subtilis. We have exploited the physical dimensions of the B. megaterium sporangium, in conjunction with wide-field deconvolution microscopy, to construct three-dimensional projections of sporulating cells. These projections indicate that SpoIIGA-GFP is initially localized in an annulus at the septal periphery and is only later localized uniformly throughout the septa. Localization was also detected in a B. subtilis spo0H null strain that fails to construct a spore septum. We propose that SpoIIGA is sequestered in the septum by an interaction with components of the septation machinery and that this interaction begins before the construction of the asymmetric septum.

Inhibition of assembly of bacterial cell division protein FtsZ by the hydrophobic dye 5,5'-bis-(8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonate)

To gain further insight into the structural relatedness of tubulin and FtsZ, the tubulin-like prokaryotic cell division protein, we tested the effect of tubulin assembly inhibitors on FtsZ assembly. Common tubulin inhibitors, such as colchicine, colcemid, benomyl, and vinblastine, had no effect on Ca2+-promoted GTP-dependent assembly of FtsZ into polymers. However, the hydrophobic probe 5, 5'-bis-(8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonate) (bis-ANS) inhibited FtsZ assembly. The potential mechanisms for inhibition are discussed. Titrations of FtsZ with bis-ANS indicated that FtsZ has one high affinity binding site and multiple low affinity binding sites. ANS (8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonate), a hydrophobic probe similar to bis-ANS, had no inhibitory effect on FtsZ assembly. Because tubulin assembly has also been shown to be inhibited by bis-ANS but not by ANS, it supports the idea that FtsZ and tubulin share similar conformational properties. Ca2+, which promotes GTP-dependent FtsZ assembly, stimulated binding of bis-ANS or ANS to FtsZ, suggesting that Ca2+ binding induces changes in the hydrophobic conformation of the protein. Interestingly, depletion of bound Ca2+ with EGTA further enhanced bis-ANS fluorescence. These findings suggest that both binding and dissociation of Ca2+ are capable of inducing FtsZ conformational changes, and these changes could promote the GTP-dependent assembly of FtsZ.

FtsZ dynamics during the division cycle of live Escherichia coli cells

The dynamics and assembly of bacterial cell division protein FtsZ were monitored in individual, growing and dividing Escherichia coli cells in real time by microculture of a merodiploid strain expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged FtsZ. Cells expressing FtsZ-GFP at levels less than or equivalent to that of wild-type FtsZ were able to grow and divide over multiple generations, with their FtsZ rings visualized by fluorescence. During the late stages of cytokinesis, which constituted the last one-fourth of the cell cycle, the lumen of the FtsZ ring disappeared as the whole structure condensed. At this time, loops of FtsZ-GFP polymers emanated outward from the condensing ring structure and other unstable fluorescent structures elsewhere in the cell were also observed. Assembly of FtsZ rings at new division sites occurred within 1 min, from what appeared to be single points. Interestingly, this nucleation often took place in the predivisional cell at the same time the central FtsZ ring was in its final contraction phase. This demonstrates directly that, at least when FtsZ-GFP is being expressed, new division sites have the capacity to become fully functional for FtsZ targeting and assembly before cell division of the mother cell is completed. The results suggest that the timing of FtsZ assembly may be normally controlled in part by cellular FtsZ concentration. The use of wide-field optical sectioning microscopy to obtain sharp fluorescence images of FtsZ structures is also discussed.

Bacterial cell division

Bacteria usually divide by building a central septum across the middle of the cell. This review focuses on recent results indicating that the tubulin-like FtsZ protein plays a central role in cytokinesis as a major component of a contractile cytoskeleton. Assembly of this cytoskeletal element abutting the membrane is a key point for regulation. The characterization of FtsZ homologues in Mycoplasmas, Archaea, and chloroplasts implies that the constriction mechanism is conserved and that FtsZ can constrict in the absence of peptidoglycan synthesis. In most Eubacteria, the internal cytoskeleton must also regulate synthesis of septal peptidoglycan. The Escherichia coli septum-specific penicillin-binding protein 3 (PBP3) forms a complex with other enzymes involved in murein metabolism, suggesting a centrally located transmembrane complex capable of splicing multiple new strands of peptidoglycan into the cell wall. Important questions remain about the spatial and temporal control of bacterial division.

Interactions between heterologous FtsA and FtsZ proteins at the FtsZ ring

FtsZ and FtsA are essential for cell division in Escherichia coli and colocalize to the septal ring. One approach to determine what regions of FtsA and FtsZ are important for their interaction is to identify in vivo interactions between FtsA and FtsZ from different species. As a first step, the ftsA genes of Rhizobium meliloti and Agrobacterium tumefaciens were isolated and characterized. In addition, an FtsZ homolog that shared the unusual C-terminal extension of R. meliloti FtsZ1 was found in A. tumefaciens. In order to visualize their localization in cells, we tagged these proteins with green fluorescent protein (GFP). When R. meliloti FtsZ1-GFP or A. tumefaciens FtsZ-GFP was expressed at low levels in E. coli, they specifically localized only to the E. coli FtsZ ring, possibly by coassembly. When A. tumefaciens FtsA-GFP or R. meliloti FtsA-GFP was expressed in E. coli, they failed to localize detectably to the E. coli FtsZ ring. However, when R. meliloti FtsZ1 was coexpressed with them, fluorescence localized to a band at the midcell division site, strongly suggesting that FtsA from either A. tumefaciens or R. meliloti can bind directly to its cognate FtsZ. As expected, GFP-tagged FtsZ1 and FtsA from either R. meliloti or A. tumefaciens localized to the division site in A. tumefaciens cells. Therefore, the 61 amino acid changes between A. tumefaciens FtsA and R. meliloti FtsA do not prevent their direct interaction with FtsZ1 from either species, suggesting that those residues are not essential for protein-protein contacts. Moreover, the failure of the two non-E. coli FtsA derivatives to interact strongly with E. coli FtsZ in this in vivo system unless their cognate FtsZ was also present suggests that FtsA-FtsZ interactions have coevolved and that the residues which differ between the E. coli proteins and those of the two other species may be important for specific interactions.

Overexpression of the hslVU operon suppresses SOS-mediated inhibition of cell division in Escherichia coli

A multicopy clone was isolated which conferred resistance to the SOS inducer nitrofurantoin in an Escherichia coli lon mutant. Plasmid pHL1 was found to contain a 7-8 kbp HindIII DNA insert from a region of the chromosome at 88.5 minutes. Further characterisation of pHL1 revealed that resistance to nitrofurantoin was due to the overexpression of the hslV-hslU operon which encodes an ATP-dependent protease complex in E. coli. The overexpression of hslVU also conferred resistance to ultraviolet irradiation in the lon mutant. It is proposed that when overproduced, the HslV-HslU protease complex can degrade SulA which is an endogenous inhibitor of the essential cell division protein FtsZ. The ability of HslVU to degrade SulA in vivo suggests that Lon and HslVU may share a range of substrates. Furthermore, the suppression of lon could be used as a simple genetic test of proteolytic activity of cloned HslVU.

Analysis of the interaction of FtsZ with itself, GTP, and FtsA

The interaction of FtsZ with itself, GTP, and FtsA was examined by analyzing the sensitivity of FtsZ to proteolysis and by using the yeast two-hybrid system. The N-terminal conserved domain consisting of 320 amino acids bound GTP, and a central region of FtsZ, encompassing slightly more than half of the protein, was cross-linked to GTP. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that none of six highly conserved aspartic acid and asparagine residues were required for GTP binding. These results indicate that the specificity determinants for GTP binding are different than those for the GTPase superfamily. The N-terminal conserved domain of FtsZ contained a site for self-interaction that is conserved between FtsZ proteins from distantly related bacterial species. FtsZ320, which was truncated at the end of the conserved domain, was a potent inhibitor of division although it expressed normal GTPase activity and could polymerize. FtsZ was also found to interact directly with FtsA, and this interaction could also be observed between these proteins from distantly related bacterial species.

Leaderless polypeptides efficiently extracted from whole cells by osmotic shock

Three molecular foldases, DsbA, DsbC, and rotamase (ppiA), exhibited the unusual property of accumulating in an osmotically sensitive cellular compartment of Escherichia coli when their signal sequences were precisely removed by mutation. A mammalian protein, interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor antagonist, behaved in a similar fashion in E. coli when its native signal sequence was deleted. These leaderless mutants (but not two control proteins overexpressed in the same system) were quantitatively extractable from whole cells by a variety of methods generally employed in the recovery of periplasmic proteins. A series of biochemical and genetic experiments showed that (i) leaderless DsbA (but not the wild type) was retained in a nonperiplasmic location; (ii) beta-galactosidase fusions to leaderless DsbA (but not to the wild type) exhibited efficient alpha complementation; (iii) none of the leaderless mutant proteins were substantially associated with cell membranes, even when they were overexpressed in cells; and (iv) leaderless DsbA was not transported to an osmotically sensitive compartment via a secA- or ftsZ-dependent mechanism. The observation that these proteins transit to some privileged cellular location by a previously undescribed mechanism(s)--absent their normal mode of (signal sequence-dependent) translocation--was unexpected. DsbA, rotamase, and IL-1, whose tertiary structures are known, appear to be structurally unrelated proteins. Despite a lack of obvious homologies, these proteins apparently have a common mechanism for intracellular localization. As this (putative) bacterial mechanism efficiently recognizes proteins of mammalian origin, it must be well conserved across evolutionary boundaries.

Identification and characterization of cell wall-cell division gene clusters in pathogenic gram-positive cocci

Clusters of peptidoglycan biosynthesis and cell division genes (DCW genes) were identified and sequenced in two gram-positive cocci, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. The results indicated some similarities in organization compared with previously reported bacterial DCW gene clusters, including the presence of penicillin-binding proteins at the left ends and ftsA and ftsZ cell division genes at the right ends of the clusters. However, there were also some important differences, including the absence of several genes, the comparative sizes of the div1B and ftsQ genes, and a wide range of amino acid sequence similarities when the genes of the gram-positive cocci were translated and compared to bacterial homologs.

A promoter for the first nine genes of the Escherichia coli mra cluster of cell division and cell envelope biosynthesis genes, including ftsI and ftsW

We constructed a null allele of the ftsI gene encoding penicillin-binding protein 3 of Escherichia coli. It caused blockage of septation and loss of viability when expression of an extrachromosomal copy of ftsI was repressed, providing a final proof that ftsI is an essential cell division gene. In order to complement this null allele, the ftsI gene cloned on a single-copy mini-F plasmid required a region 1.9 kb upstream, which was found to contain a promoter sequence that could direct expression of a promoterless lacZ gene on a mini-F plasmid. This promoter sequence lies at the beginning of the mra cluster in the 2 min region of the E. coli chromosome, a cluster of 16 genes which, except for the first 2, are known to be involved in cell division and cell envelope biosynthesis. Disruption of this promoter, named the mra promoter, on the chromosome by inserting the lac promoter led to cell lysis in the absence of a lac inducer. The defect was complemented by a plasmid carrying a chromosomal fragment ranging from the mra promoter to ftsW, the fifth gene downstream of ftsI, but not by a plasmid lacking ftsW. Although several potential promoter sequences in this region of the mra cluster have been reported, we conclude that the promoter identified in this study is required for the first nine genes of the cluster to be fully expressed.

Cloning, sequencing, and characterization of the ftsZ gene from coryneform bacteria

Taking advantage of highly conserved domains present in the ftsZ genes from Escherichia coli, Rhizobium meliloti, and Bacillus subtilis, we designed degenerate oligonucleotides (oligos) corresponding to these regions. These oligos were used as primers in PCR in order to amplify DNA sequences from Brevibacterium flavum MJ233 chromosomal DNA. The PCR product was used as a probe to recover genomic fragments from a lambda library of Br. flavum MJ233. The complete nucleotide sequence (nt) of the cloned 4.2-kb EcoRI fragment containing the ftsZ homolog from Br. flavum MJ233 indicated that the deduced gene product of the Br. flavum ftsZ homolog is composed of 438 amino acids (aa) with a deduced molecular weight of 46.9 kDa. This size of molecular weight was also confirmed by the in vitro protein synthesis assay. Comparison of this aa sequence to the corresponding sequences from E. coli, Rh. meliloti, B. subtilis, and Streptomyces coelicolor revealed a high degree of conservation and suggested that the Br. flavum ftsZ homolog has a putative GTP binding motif and a GTP hydrolizing region. Expression of Br. flavum ftsZ gene in E. coli, JM109 inhibited its cell division, leading to filamentation. This suggested that the Br. flavum ftsZ product competed with the E. coli ftsZ product.

The 75-kilodalton antigen of Bartonella bacilliformis is a structural homolog of the cell division protein FtsZ

A genomic library of Bartonella bacilliformis was constructed and screened with human anti-Bartonella serum from a patient with the chronic, verruga peruana phase of bartonellosis. An immunoreactive clone isolated from this library was found to code for a 591-amino-acid protein with a high degree of sequence similarity to the FtsZ family of proteins. The degree of amino acid identity between the B. bacilliformis protein (FtsZ[Bb]) and the other FtsZ proteins is especially pronounced over the N-terminal 321 amino acids (N-terminal domain) of the sequence, with values ranging from 45% identity for the homolog from Micrococcus luteus (FtsZ[Ml]) to 91% identity for the homolog from Rhizobium melliloti, (FtsZ[Rm1]). All of the functional domains required for FtsZ activity are conserved in FtsZ(Bb) and are located within the N-terminal domain of the protein. FtsZ(Bb) is approximately twice as large as most of the other FtsZ proteins previously reported, a property it shares with FtsZ(Rm1). Like the Rhizobium homolog, FtsZ(Bb) has a C-terminal region of approximately 256 amino acids that is absent in the other FtsZ proteins. Evidence is presented that implicates this region in the protein's antigenicity and suggests that, unlike most other FtsZ homologs, FtsZ(Bb) is at least partly exposed at the cell surface. PCR analysis revealed that an ftsZ gene similar in size to the B. bacilliformis gene is present in Bartonella henselae, a bacterium that is closely related to B. bacilliformis.

Expression analysis of the ssgA gene product, associated with sporulation and cell division in Streptomyces griseus

The ssgA gene of Streptomyces griseus B2682, when present in high copy number, results in both suppression of sporulation and fragmented growth of mycelia. Western analysis with polyclonal antibodies against the gene product (SsgA) revealed a close correlation between SsgA accumulation and the onset of sporulation in wild-type cells. The protein was only detected in the cytoplasm. Certain developmental mutants of S. griseus (afs, reIC and brgA) which are defective in aerial mycelium formation in solid culture and submerged spore formation in liquid culture failed to accumulate SsgA. The SsgA protein appeared shortly (1 h) after nutritional shift-down of strain B2682 cells. afs mutant cells sporulated and expressed SsgA only when A-factor was present both before and after nutritional shift-down. Introduction of the ssgA gene in a low-copy-number vector into strain B2682 resulted in fivefold overexpression of SsgA, and was accompanied by fragmented growth of mycelia and suppression of submerged spore formation (in liquid culture) and aerial mycelium formation (in solid culture). Streptomycin production was not inhibited. In a control experiment, a nonfunctional ssgA gene possessing a frameshift mutation near its N-terminus had no effect on either growth or sporulation. It is proposed that the ssgA gene product plays a role in promoting the developmental process of S. griseus.

Inactivation of FtsI inhibits constriction of the FtsZ cytokinetic ring and delays the assembly of FtsZ rings at potential division sites

A universally conserved event in cell division is the formation of a cytokinetic ring at the future site of division. In the bacterium Escherichia coli, this ring is formed by the essential cell division protein FtsZ. We have used immunofluorescence microscopy to show that FtsZ assembles early in the division cycle, suggesting that constriction of the FtsZ ring is regulated and supporting the view that FtsZ serves as a bacterial cytoskeleton. Assembly of FtsZ rings was heterogeneously affected in an ftsI temperature-sensitive mutant grown at the nonpermissive temperature, some filaments displaying a striking defect in FtsZ assembly and others displaying little or no defect. By using low concentrations of the beta-lactams cephalexin and piperacillin to specifically inhibit FtsI (PBP3), an enzyme that synthesizes peptidoglycan at the division septum, we show that FtsZ ring constriction requires the transpeptidase activity of FtsI. Unconstricted FtsZ rings are stably trapped at the midpoint of the cell for several generations after inactivation of FtsI, whereas partially constricted FtsZ rings are less effectively trapped. In addition, FtsZ rings are able to assemble in newborn cells in the presence of cephalexin, suggesting that newborn cells contain a site at which FtsZ can assemble (the nascent division site) and that the transpeptidase activity of FtsI is not required for assembly of FtsZ at these sites. However, aside from this first round of FtsZ ring assembly, very few additional FtsZ rings assemble in the presence of cephalexin, even after several generations of growth. One interpretation of these results is that the transpeptidase activity of FtsI is required, directly or indirectly, for the assembly of nascent division sites and thereby for future assembly of FtsZ rings.

Bacterial cell division and the Z ring

Bacterial cell division occurs through the formation of an FtsZ ring (Z ring) at the site of division. The ring is composed of the tubulin-like FtsZ protein that has GTPase activity and the ability to polymerize in vitro. The Z ring is thought to function in vivo as a cytoskeletal element that is analogous to the contractile ring in many eukaryotic cells. Evidence suggests that the Z ring is utilized by all prokaryotic organisms for division and may also be used by some eukaryotic organelles. This review summarizes our present knowledge about the formation, function, and evolution of the Z ring in prokaryotic cell division.

FtsA is localized to the septum in an FtsZ-dependent manner

The localization of the cell division protein FtsA in E. coli was examined. FtsA was found to localize to the septum in a ring pattern as previously shown for FtsZ. The localization of FtsA was completely dependent on the localization of FtsZ. Under a variety of conditions that prevented formation of the Z ring, FtsA was unable to localize. In mutants where FtsZ forms structures in addition to Z rings, the pattern of FtsA duplicated these structures. These results suggest that the Z ring recruits FtsA to the septum.

Interaction between FtsZ and inhibitors of cell division

The interaction between inhibitors of cell division and FtsZ were assessed by using the yeast two-hybrid system. An interaction was observed between FtsZ and SulA, a component of the SOS response, and the interacting regions were mapped to their conserved domains. This interaction was reduced by mutations in sulA and by most mutations in ftsZ that make cell refractory to sulA. No interaction was detected between FtsZ and MinCD, an inhibitory component of the site selection system. However, interactions were observed among various members of the Min system, and MinE was found to reduce the interaction between MinC and MinD. The implications of these findings for cell division are discussed.

Cell division gene ftsQ is required for efficient sporulation but not growth and viability in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2)

We show that the cell division gene ftsQ of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) is dispensable for growth and viability but is needed during development for the efficient conversion of aerial filaments into spores. Combined with our previous demonstration that ftsZ of S. coelicolor is not needed for viability, these findings suggest that cell division has been largely co-opted for development in this filamentous bacterium. This makes S. coelicolor an advantageous system for the study of cell division genes.

RNase E processing of essential cell division genes mRNA in Escherichia coli

The ratio of the FtsZ to FtsA proteins determines the correct initiation of cell division in Escherichia coli. The genes for these proteins are contiguous on the chromosome. Although both genes are transcribed from common promoters, the presence of ftsZ-specific promoters, along with differences in the efficiency of translation of their respective mRNAs, contribute to the increased relative expression of ftsZ. We report here that the polycistronic ftsA-ftsZ transcripts are cleaved by RNase E and that this cleavage affects the decay of ftsA and ftsZ mRNA. As a consequence of the cleavage, RNase E also contributes to the differential expression of the two genes.

Chloramphenicol causes fusion of separated nucleoids in Escherichia coli K-12 cells and filaments

Chloramphenicol is frequently used for better visualization of the Escherichia coli nucleoid. Here, we show that chloramphenicol causes not only rounding off of the nucleoid but also fusion of as many as four separated nucleoids. Nucleoid fusion occurred in fast-growing cells and in filaments obtained by dicF antisense RNA induction or in ftsZ84(Ts) and pbpB(Ts) mutants. Thus, treatment with chloramphenicol erroneously suggests that DNA segregation is inhibited.

Mecillinam resistance in Escherichia coli is conferred by loss of a second activity of the AroK protein

Mecillinam, a beta-lactam antibiotic specific to penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP 2) in Escherichia coli, blocks cell wall elongation and, indirectly, cell division, but its lethality can be overcome by increased levels of ppGpp, the nucleotide effector of the stringent response. We have subjected an E. coli K-12 strain to random insertional mutagenesis with a mini-Tn10 element. One insertion, which was found to confer resistance to mecillinam in relA+ and relA strains, was mapped at 75.5 min on the E. coli map and was located between the promoters and the coding sequence of the aroK gene, which codes for shikimate kinase 1, one of two E. coli shikimate kinases, both of which are involved in aromatic amino acid biosynthesis. The mecillinam resistance conferred by the insertion was abolished in a delta relA delta spoT strain completely lacking ppGpp, and it thus depends on the presence of ppGpp. Furthermore, the insertion increased the ppGpp pool approximately twofold in a relA+ strain. However, this increase was not observed in relA strains, although the insertion still conferred mecillinam resistance in these backgrounds, showing that mecillinam resistance is not due to an increased ppGpp pool. The resistance was also abolished in an ftsZ84(Ts) strain under semipermissive conditions, and the aroK::mini-Tn10 allele partially suppressed ftsZ84(Ts); however, it did not increase the concentration of the FtsZ cell division protein. The insertion greatly decreased or abolished the shikimate kinase activity of AroK in vivo and in vitro. The two shikimate kinases of E. coli are not equivalent; the loss of AroK confers mecillinam resistance, whereas the loss of Arol, does not. Furthermore, the ability of the aroK mutation to confer mecillinam resistance is shown to be independent of polar effects on operon expression and of effects on the availability of aromatic amino acids or shikimic acid. Instead, we conclude that the AroK protein has a second activity, possibly related to cell division regulation, which confers mecillinam sensitivity. We were able to separate the AroK activities mutationally with an aroK mutant allele lacking shikimate kinase activity but still able to confer mecillinam sensitivity.

Dependency of Escherichia coli cell-division size, and independency of nucleoid segregation on the mode and level of ftsZ expression

Expression of ftsZ in strain VIP205 is dissociated from its natural promoters, and is under the control of an inducible tac promoter. This abolishes the oscillation in ftsZ transcription observed in the wild type, allowing different levels of ftsZ expression. We demonstrate that this construction does not affect the expression of other genes, and has no effects on replication or nucleoid segregation. A shift in IPTG from 30 microM, that supports division at wild-type sizes, to lower (6 microM) or higher (100 microM) concentrations, indicates that VIP205 cells can divide within a broad range of FtsZ concentrations. Analysis of the morphological parameters during the transition from one IPTG concentration to another suggests that the correct timing of ftsZ expression, and the correct FtsZ concentration, are required for division to occur at normal cell sizes. After a transient division delay during the transition to lower IPTG concentrations, cells in which ftsZ is expressed continuously (yielding 80% of the wild-type FtsZ levels) divide with the same division time as the wild type, but at the expense of becoming 1.5 times larger. A precise control of ftsZ expression is required for normal division, but the existence of additional regulators to maintain the correct timing during the cell cycle cannot be ruled out.

Characterization of the ftsZ gene from Mycoplasma pulmonis, an organism lacking a cell wall

The ftsZ gene is required for cell division in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. In these organisms, FtsZ is located in a ring at the leading edge of the septum. This ring is thought to be responsible for invagination of the septum, either causing invagination of the cytoplasmic membrane or activating septum-specific peptidoglycan biosynthesis. In this paper, we report that the cell division gene ftsZ is present in two mycoplasma species, Mycoplasma pulmonis and Acholeplasma laidlawii, which are eubacterial organisms lacking a cell wall. Sequencing of the ftsZ homolog from M. pulmonis revealed that it was highly homologous to other known FtsZ proteins. The M. pulmonis ftsZ gene was overexpressed, and the purified M. pulmonis FtsZ bound GTP. Using antisera raised against this purified protein, we could demonstrate that it was expressed in M. pulmonis. Expression of the M. pulmonis ftsZ gene in E. coli inhibited cell division, leading to filamentation, which could be suppressed by increasing expression of the E. coli ftsZ gene. The implications of these results for the role of ftsZ in cell division are discussed.

Isolation of an ftsZ homolog from the archaebacterium Halobacterium salinarium: implications for the evolution of FtsZ and tubulin

We have isolated a homolog of the cell division gene ftsZ from the extremely halophilic archaebacterium Halobacterium salinarium. The predicted protein of 39 kDa is divergent relative to eubacterial homologs, with 32% identity to Escherichia coli FtsZ. No other eubacterial cell division gene homologs were found adjacent to H. salinarium ftsZ. Expression of the ftsZ gene region in H. salinarium induced significant morphological changes leading to the loss of rod shape. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the H. salinarium FtsZ protein is more related to tubulins than are the FtsZ proteins of eubacteria, supporting the hypothesis that FtsZ may have evolved into eukaryotic tubulin.

Sigma S-dependent overexpression of ftsZ in an Escherichia coli K-12 rpoB mutant that is resistant to the division inhibitors DicB and DicF RNA

The Escherichia coli genes dicF and dicB encode division inhibitors, which prevent the synthesis and activity, respectively, of the essential division protein FtsZ. A mutation at the C-terminal end of the RNA polymerase beta subunit renders cells resistant to both inhibitors. In the mutant strain the level of the ftsZ gene product is higher than in the wild type. Disruption of rpoS, which encodes the stationary phase sigma factor sigma S, lowers FtsZ protein levels in the mutant, and partially restores sensitivity to the inhibitors.

Analysis of genes encoding the cell division protein FtsZ and a glutathione synthetase homologue in the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120

Heterocysts, cells specialized in nitrogen fixation in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120, lose the potential for cell division once fully differentiated. This suggests that cell division activity is differentially regulated in heterocysts and vegetative cells. FtsZ has been shown to play a crucial role in bacterial cell division. Two degenerate oligonucleotide primers were designed to detect, by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), an ftsZ homologue from the heterocystous cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. A PCR-amplified DNA fragment was cloned and used as a probe to isolate the entire ftsZ gene of Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. The deduced amino acid sequence shares strong similarities with other FtsZ proteins, suggesting remarkable conservation of the FtsZ protein during evolution. An ORF downstream of ftsZ, which would be transcribed in the opposite direction compared to ftsZ, could encode a polypeptide with significant sequence similarity to the glutathione synthetase from Escherichia coli. Inactivation experiments in vivo for both ftsZ and the glutathione synthetase gene did not yield any double recombinants either in the presence or in the absence of combined nitrogen, suggesting that both genes are essential for cell growth under these conditions.

Regulation of gene expression by trans-encoded antisense RNAs

Members of a class of antisense RNAs are encoded by genes that are located at loci other than those of their target genes. Three examples of antisense RNA genes are discussed here. micF is found in Escherichia coli and other bacteria and functions to control outer membrane protein F levels in response to environmental stimuli. dicF is also found in E. coli and is involved in the regulation of cell division. lin-4 is found in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and functions during larval development. Nucleotide sequences of at least two of these genes appear to be phylogenetically conserved. The trans-encoded antisense RNAs are small RNAs which display only partial complementarity to their target RNAs. Models for RNA/RNA interactions have been proposed. It is possible that currently known unlinked antisense RNA genes are part of a larger class of heretofore undiscovered regulatory RNA genes. Possible ways of detecting other unlinked antisense RNA genes are discussed.

Genetic analysis of Proteus mirabilis mutants defective in swarmer cell elongation

Swarmer cell differentiation is a complex process involving the activity of many gene products. In this report, we characterized the genetic locus of Tn5 insertion in each of 12 mutants defective in swarmer cell elongation. The mutations fell into four categories affecting either flagellar biosynthesis or energetics, lipopolysaccharide and cell wall biosynthesis, cellular division, or proteolysis of peptides.

Relationship between ftsZ gene expression and chromosome replication in Escherichia coli

Transcriptional levels within the ftsQAZ region of the Escherichia coli chromosome were correlated with chromosome replication and the division cycle. The transcripts were measured either in synchronous cultures generated by the baby machine technique or in dnaC2(Ts) mutants that had been aligned for initiation of chromosome replication by temperature shifts. Transcription within the ftsZ reading frame was found to fluctuate during the cell cycle, with maximal levels about midcycle and a minimum level at division, in cells growing with a doubling time of 24 min at 37 degrees C. Examination of transcription in dnaC(Ts) mutants aligned for chromosome replication indicated that the periodicity was due to a reduction in transcripts coincident with replication of the ftsQAZ region. Transcription originating upstream of the ftsA gene exhibited the periodicity and accounted for a significant proportion of the transcripts entering ftsZ. The most obvious interpretation of the data is that replication of the region transiently inhibits transcription, but alternative explanations have not been ruled out. However, no other relationship between transcription and either replication or division was detected.