151
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Rodewald HR, Feyerabend TB. Widespread immunological functions of mast cells: fact or fiction? Immunity 2012; 37:13-24. [PMID: 22840840 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Immunological functions of mast cells are currently considered to be much broader than the original role of mast cells in IgE-driven allergic disease. The spectrum of proposed mast cell functions includes areas as diverse as the regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses, protective immunity against viral, microbial, and parasitic pathogens, autoimmunity, tolerance to graft rejection, promotion of or protection from cancer, wound healing, angiogenesis, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, and others. The vast majority of in vivo mast cell data have been based on mast cell-deficient Kit mutant mice. However, work in new mouse mutants with unperturbed Kit function, which have a surprisingly normal immune system, has failed to corroborate some key immunological aspects, formerly attributed to mast cells. Here, we consider the implications of these recent developments for the state of the field as well as for future work, aiming at deciphering the physiological functions of mast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Reimer Rodewald
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg, Germany.
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152
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Oka T, Kalesnikoff J, Starkl P, Tsai M, Galli SJ. Evidence questioning cromolyn's effectiveness and selectivity as a 'mast cell stabilizer' in mice. J Transl Med 2012; 92:1472-82. [PMID: 22906983 PMCID: PMC3580174 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2012.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cromolyn, widely characterized as a 'mast cell stabilizer', has been used in mice to investigate the biological roles of mast cells in vivo. However, it is not clear to what extent cromolyn can either limit the function of mouse mast cells or influence biological processes in mice independently of effects on mast cells. We confirmed that cromolyn (at 10 mg/kg in vivo or 10-100 μM in vitro) can inhibit IgE-dependent mast cell activation in rats in vivo (measuring Evans blue extravasation in passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) and increases in plasma histamine in passive systemic anaphylaxis (PSA)) and in vitro (measuring peritoneal mast cell (PMC) β-hexosaminidase release and prostaglandin D(2) synthesis). However, under the conditions tested, cromolyn did not inhibit those mast cell-dependent responses in mice. In mice, cromolyn also failed to inhibit the ear swelling or leukocyte infiltration at sites of PCA. Nor did cromolyn inhibit IgE-independent degranulation of mouse PMCs induced by various stimulators in vitro. At 100 mg/kg, a concentration 10 times higher than that which inhibited PSA in rats, cromolyn significantly inhibited the increases in plasma concentrations of mouse mast cell protease-1 (but not of histamine) during PSA, but had no effect on the reduction in body temperature in this setting. Moreover, this concentration of cromolyn (100 mg/kg) also inhibited LPS-induced TNF production in genetically mast cell-deficient C57BL/6-Kit(W-sh/W-sh) mice in vivo. These results question cromolyn's effectiveness and selectivity as an inhibitor of mast cell activation and mediator release in the mouse.
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153
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Makepeace BL, Martin C, Turner JD, Specht S. Granulocytes in helminth infection -- who is calling the shots? Curr Med Chem 2012; 19:1567-86. [PMID: 22360486 PMCID: PMC3394172 DOI: 10.2174/092986712799828337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Revised: 12/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Helminths are parasitic organisms that can be broadly described as “worms” due to their elongated body plan, but which otherwise differ in shape, development, migratory routes and the predilection site of the adults and larvae. They are divided into three major groups: trematodes (flukes), which are leaf-shaped, hermaphroditic (except for blood flukes) flatworms with oral and ventral suckers; cestodes (tapeworms), which are segmented, hermaphroditic flatworms that inhabit the intestinal lumen; and nematodes (roundworms), which are dioecious, cylindrical parasites that inhabit intestinal and peripheral tissue sites. Helminths exhibit a sublime co-evolution with the host´s immune system that has enabled them to successfully colonize almost all multicellular species present in every geographical environment, including over two billion humans. In the face of this challenge, the host immune system has evolved to strike a delicate balance between attempts to neutralize the infectious assault versus limitation of damage to host tissues. Among the most important cell types during helminthic invasion are granulocytes: eosinophils, neutrophils and basophils. Depending on the specific context, these leukocytes may have pivotal roles in host protection, immunopathology, or facilitation of helminth establishment. This review provides an overview of the function of granulocytes in helminthic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- B L Makepeace
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection & Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZJ, UK
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154
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Decuypere JP, Parys JB, Bultynck G. Regulation of the autophagic bcl-2/beclin 1 interaction. Cells 2012; 1:284-312. [PMID: 24710477 PMCID: PMC3901098 DOI: 10.3390/cells1030284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an intracellular degradation process responsible for the delivery of cellular material to the lysosomes. One of the key mechanisms for control of autophagy is the modulation of the interaction between the autophagic protein Beclin 1 and the members of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family (e.g., Bcl-2, Bcl-XL and Mcl-1). This binding is regulated by a variety of proteins and compounds that are able to enhance or inhibit the Bcl-2/Beclin 1 interaction in order to repress or activate autophagy, respectively. In this review we will focus on this interaction and discuss its characteristics, relevance and regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Paul Decuypere
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Signaling, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, O/N-1, bus 802, Herestraat 49, Leuven, BE-3000, Belgium.
| | - Jan B Parys
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Signaling, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, O/N-1, bus 802, Herestraat 49, Leuven, BE-3000, Belgium.
| | - Geert Bultynck
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Signaling, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, O/N-1, bus 802, Herestraat 49, Leuven, BE-3000, Belgium.
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155
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Gurish M, Austen KF. Developmental Origin and Functional Specialization of Mast Cell Subsets. Immunity 2012; 37:25-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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156
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Ottina E, Tischner D, Herold MJ, Villunger A. A1/Bfl-1 in leukocyte development and cell death. Exp Cell Res 2012; 318:1291-303. [PMID: 22342458 PMCID: PMC3405526 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2012.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The function of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bcl2a1/Bfl-1/A1 is poorly understood due to the lack of appropriate loss-of-function mouse models and redundant effects with other Bcl-2 pro-survival proteins upon overexpression. Expression analysis of A1 suggests predominant roles in leukocyte development, their survival upon viral or bacterial infection, as well as during allergic reactions. In addition, A1 has been implicated in autoimmunity and the pathology and therapy resistance of hematological as well as solid tumors that may aberrantly express this protein. In this review, we aim to summarize current knowledge on A1 biology, focusing on its role in the immune system and compare it to that of other pro-survival Bcl-2 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Ottina
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Denise Tischner
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Marco J. Herold
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Andreas Villunger
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
- Corresponding author at: Division of Developmental Immunology, BIOCENTER, Innsbruck Medical University, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria. Fax: + 43 512 9003 73960.
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157
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Brown MA, Hatfield JK. Mast Cells are Important Modifiers of Autoimmune Disease: With so Much Evidence, Why is There Still Controversy? Front Immunol 2012; 3:147. [PMID: 22701454 PMCID: PMC3369183 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
There is abundant evidence that mast cells are active participants in events that mediate tissue damage in autoimmune disease. Disease-associated increases in mast cell numbers accompanied by mast cell degranulation and elaboration of numerous mast cell mediators at sites of inflammation are commonly observed in many human autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and bullous pemphigoid. In animal models, treatment with mast cell stabilizing drugs or mast cell ablation can result in diminished disease. A variety of receptors including those engaged by antibody, complement, pathogens, and intrinsic danger signals are implicated in mast cell activation in disease. Similar to their role as first responders in infection settings, mast cells likely orchestrate early recruitment of immune cells, including neutrophils, to the sites of autoimmune destruction. This co-localization promotes cellular crosstalk and activation and results in the amplification of the local inflammatory response thereby promoting and sustaining tissue damage. Despite the evidence, there is still a debate regarding the relative role of mast cells in these processes. However, by definition, mast cells can only act as accessory cells to the self-reactive T and/or antibody driven autoimmune responses. Thus, when evaluating mast cell involvement using existing and somewhat imperfect animal models of disease, their importance is sometimes obscured. However, these potent immune cells are undoubtedly major contributors to autoimmunity and should be considered as important targets for therapeutic disease intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Brown
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago, IL, USA
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158
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Brown M, Hatfield J, Walker M, Sayed B. A Game of Kit and Mouse: The Kit Is Still in the Bag. Immunity 2012; 36:891-2; author reply 893-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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159
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CADM1 isoforms differentially regulate human mast cell survival and homotypic adhesion. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 69:2751-64. [PMID: 22438059 PMCID: PMC3400039 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-012-0948-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Revised: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cell adhesion molecule 1 (CADM1), expressed by human lung mast cells (HLMCs), mediates their adhesion to airway smooth muscle (ASM), and contributes to ASM-dependent HLMC proliferation and survival. CADM1 is expressed in alternatively spliced isoforms, but those present in HLMCs and their function are not known. We cloned three functional and one cryptic non-functional isoform with alternative splicing between exons 7/11 and 1/2, respectively, from HLMCs and human MC lines (HMC-1 and LAD2). Differentiated HLMCs and LAD2 cells expressed the functional isoform SP4 containing exons 7/8/11 (~80% of clones), as well as SP1 (exons 7/8/9/11) and a novel SP6 (exons 7/8/9/10/11). In contrast, immature HMC-1 cells expressed only functional SP4. SP4 overexpression in HMC-1 cells and HLMCs augmented homotypic adhesion to a greater extent than SP1 in various conditions. In contrast, CADM1 downregulation abolished homotypic adhesion, indicating that CADM1 is the sole receptor mediating mast cell aggregation. CADM1-mediated adhesion was enhanced by the presence of cell survival factors. SP1 overexpression in HMC-1 cells compromised survival compared to SP4 overexpression or control. CADM1 downregulation resulted in reduced viability and decreased expression of the pro-survival protein Mcl-1L, but not Blc-2 or Bcl-XL, and increased caspase-3/7 activity in both HMC-1 cells and HLMCs. This coincided with decreased basal Kit levels in HLMCs. In summary, human MCs express multiple CADM1 isoforms which exhibit differential regulation of survival and homotypic adhesion. The most highly expressed SP4 isoform is likely to contribute to MC aggregation and longevity in mastocytosis, and augment the pathophysiology of allergic diseases.
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161
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Abstract
Classically, allergy depends on IgE antibodies and on high-affinity IgE receptors expressed by mast cells and basophils. This long accepted IgE/FcεRI/mast cell paradigm, on which the definition of immediate hypersensitivity was based in the Gell and Coomb's classification, appears too reductionist. Recently accumulated evidence indeed requires that not only IgE but also IgG antibodies, that not only FcεRI but also FcγR of the different types, that not only mast cells and basophils but also neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, and other myeloid cells be considered as important players in allergy. This view markedly changes our understanding of allergic diseases and, possibly, their treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friederike Jönsson
- Institut Pasteur, Département d’Immunologie, Unité d’Allergologie Moléculaire et CellulaireParis, France
- Inserm, Unité 760Paris, France
| | - Marc Daëron
- Institut Pasteur, Département d’Immunologie, Unité d’Allergologie Moléculaire et CellulaireParis, France
- Inserm, Unité 760Paris, France
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