Assigning strains to bacterial species via the internet

Disposable amperometric magnetoimmunosensors for the specific detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Disposable amperometric magnetoimmunosensors, based on the use of functionalized magnetic beads and gold screen-printed electrodes, have been developed for the selective detection and quantification of Streptococcus pneumoniae. A specific antibody prepared against a serotype 37 S. pneumoniae strain, selected by flow cytometry among seven anticapsular or antisomatic antibodies, was linked to Protein A-modified magnetic beads and incubated with bacteria. The same antibody, conjugated with horseradish peroxidase, was attached to the bacteria and the resulting modified magnetic beads were captured by a magnetic field on the surface of tetrathiafulvalene-modified gold screen-printed electrodes. The amperometric response obtained at -0.15 V vs. the silver pseudoreference electrode of the Au/SPE after the addition of H(2)O(2) was used as transduction signal. Different assay formats were examined and the experimental variables optimized. The limits of detection achieved, without pre-concentration or pre-enrichment steps, were 1.5×10(4) cfu mL(-1) (colony forming unit) and 6.3×10(5) cfu mL(-1) for S. pneumoniae strains Dawn (serotype 37) and R6 (non-encapsulated), respectively. The developed methodology shows a good selectivity against closely related streptococci and its usefulness for the analysis of inoculated urine samples has been demonstrated. The total analysis time of 3.5 h from sampling to measurement, the possibility to prepare up to 30 sensors per day and the use of small amounts of test solution for S. pneumoniae identification, constitute important advantages that make the developed methodology a promising alternative for clinical diagnosis.

Structure and molecular characterization of Streptococcus pneumoniae capsular polysaccharide 10F by carbohydrate engineering in Streptococcus oralis

Although closely related at the molecular level, the capsular polysaccharide (CPS) of serotype 10F Streptococcus pneumoniae and coaggregation receptor polysaccharide (RPS) of Streptococcus oralis C104 have distinct ecological roles. CPS prevents phagocytosis of pathogenic S. pneumoniae, whereas RPS of commensal S. oralis functions as a receptor for lectin-like adhesins on other members of the dental plaque biofilm community. Results from high resolution NMR identified the recognition region of S. oralis RPS (i.e. Galfbeta1-6GalNAcbeta1-3Galalpha) in the hexasaccharide repeat of S. pneumoniae CPS10F. The failure of this polysaccharide to support fimbriae-mediated adhesion of Actinomyces naeslundii was explained by the position of Galf, which occurred as a branch in CPS10F rather than within the linear polysaccharide chain, as in RPS. Carbohydrate engineering of S. oralis RPS with wzy from S. pneumoniae attributed formation of the Galf branch in CPS10F to the linkage of adjacent repeating units through sub terminal GalNAc in Galfbeta1-6GalNAcbeta1-3Galalpha rather than through terminal Galf, as in RPS. A gene (wcrD) from serotype 10A S. pneumoniae was then used to engineer a linear surface polysaccharide in S. oralis that was identical to RPS except for the presence of a beta1-3 linkage between Galf and GalNAcbeta1-3Galalpha. This polysaccharide also failed to support adhesion of A. naeslundii, thereby establishing the essential role of beta1-6-linked Galf in recognition of adjacent GalNAcbeta1-3Galalpha in wild-type RPS. These findings, which illustrate a molecular approach for relating bacterial polysaccharide structure to function, provide insight into the possible evolution of S. oralis RPS from S. pneumoniae CPS.

Streptococcus salivarius meningitis case strain traced to oral flora of anesthesiologist

Two women in labor received intrapartum spinal anesthesia from the same anesthesiologist approximately 1 h apart. Within 15 h, both patients developed Streptococcus salivarius meningitis and one patient died. Blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from both patients and tongue swab specimens from the anesthesiologist yielded isolates of an indistinguishable S. salivarius strain.

The population structure of Acinetobacter baumannii: expanding multiresistant clones from an ancestral susceptible genetic pool

Outbreaks of hospital infections caused by multidrug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii strains are of increasing concern worldwide. Although it has been reported that particular outbreak strains are geographically widespread, little is known about the diversity and phylogenetic relatedness of A. baumannii clonal groups. Sequencing of internal portions of seven housekeeping genes (total 2,976 nt) was performed in 154 A. baumannii strains covering the breadth of known diversity and including representatives of previously recognized international clones, and in 19 representatives of other Acinetobacter species. Restricted amounts of diversity and a star-like phylogeny reveal that A. baumannii is a genetically compact species that suffered a severe bottleneck in the recent past, possibly linked to a restricted ecological niche. A. baumannii is neatly demarcated from its closest relative (genomic species 13TU) and other Acinetobacter species. Multilocus sequence typing analysis demonstrated that the previously recognized international clones I to III correspond to three clonal complexes, each made of a central, predominant genotype and few single locus variants, a hallmark of recent clonal expansion. Whereas antimicrobial resistance was almost universal among isolates of these and a novel international clone (ST15), isolates of the other genotypes were mostly susceptible. This dichotomy indicates that antimicrobial resistance is a major selective advantage that drives the ongoing rapid clonal expansion of these highly problematic agents of nosocomial infections.

Evidence of localized prophage-host recombination in the lytA gene, encoding the major pneumococcal autolysin

According to a highly polymorphic region in the lytA gene, encoding the major autolysin of Streptococcus pneumoniae, two different families of alleles can be differentiated by PCR and restriction digestion. Here, we provide evidence that this polymorphic region arose from recombination events with homologous genes of pneumococcal temperate phages.

The genome of Streptococcus mitis B6--what is a commensal?

Streptococcus mitis is the closest relative of the major human pathogen S. pneumoniae. The 2,15 Mb sequence of the Streptococcus mitis B6 chromosome, an unusually high-level beta-lactam resistant and multiple antibiotic resistant strain, has now been determined to encode 2100 genes. The accessory genome is estimated to represent over 40%, including 75 mostly novel transposases and IS, the prophage phiB6 and another seven phage related regions. Tetracycline resistance mediated by Tn5801, and an unusual and large gene cluster containing three aminoglycoside resistance determinants have not been described in other Streptococcus spp. Comparative genomic analyses including hybridization experiments on a S. mitis B6 specific microarray reveal that individual S. mitis strains are almost as distantly related to the B6 strain as S. pneumoniae. Both species share a core of over 900 genes. Most proteins described as pneumococcal virulence factors are present in S. mitis B6, but the three choline binding proteins PcpA, PspA and PspC, and three gene clusters containing the hyaluronidase gene, ply and lytA, and the capsular genes are absent in S. mitis B6 and other S. mitis as well and confirm their importance for the pathogenetic potential of S. pneumoniae. Despite the close relatedness between the two species, the S. mitis B6 genome reveals a striking X-alignment when compared with S. pneumoniae.

Species delineation and clonal diversity in four Bifidobacterium species as revealed by multilocus sequencing

The genus Bifidobacterium comprises several species that are important contributors to the gut microbiome, with some strains having beneficial health effects. Understanding the evolutionary emergence of advantageous biological properties requires knowledge of the genetic diversity and clonal structure of species. We sequenced seven housekeeping genes in 119 Bifidobacterium strains of Bifidobacterium animalis, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium breve and Bifidobacterium longum. Phylogenetic analysis of concatenated sequences delineated sequence clusters that correspond to previously named taxa, and suggested that B. longum subsp. infantis is a nascent lineage emerging from within B. longum subsp. longum. Clear traces of recombination among distant bifidobacterial species indicate leaky species borders and warn against the practice of single gene-based identification. Multilocus sequence typing achieved precise strain genotyping, with discrimination indices above 99% in B. bifidum, B. breve and B. longum, providing a powerful tool for strain traceability, colonization dynamics and ecological studies. Frequent homologous recombination accelerates clonal diversification and may facilitate the transfer of biological properties among bifidobacterial strains.

Universal species concept: pipe dream or a step toward unifying biology?

The Universal Tree of Life, which is based on phylogenetic analysis of the RNA sequence from the small ribosomal subunit, was a breakthrough in understanding the relatedness among all living organisms. The result has had a major impact on taxonomy by separating life into three domains: Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea. Indeed, microbiologists have used the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) of the small ribosomal subunit to construct the hierarchical classification of Bacteria and Archaea from the level of domain to genus. However, the 16S rRNA of the Bacteria and Archaea and the corresponding 18S rRNA of the Eukarya are too highly conserved to be useful phylogenetically at the species level. For this reason, I propose that biologists adopt a phylogenomic species concept that utilizes both phylogenetic analyses of less highly conserved genes and proteins as well as genomic analyses for the circumscription of species. If biologists adopt a phylogenomic concept for species, the classification of all living organisms from domain to species could be completed. Furthermore, this universal species concept could help provide a more equitable circumscription among all species, as well as aid in the unification of biologists and biology.

Phenotypic and genomic characterization of pneumococcus-like streptococci isolated from HIV-seropositive patients

Accurate differentiation between pneumococci and other viridans streptococci is essential given their differences in clinical significance. However, classical phenotypic tests are often inconclusive, and many examples of atypical reactions have been reported. In this study, we applied various phenotypic and genotypic methods to discriminate between a collection of 12 streptococci isolated from the upper respiratory tract of HIV-seropositive individuals in 1998 and 1999. Conventional phenotypic characterization initially classified these streptococci as Streptococcus pneumoniae, as they were all sensitive to optochin and were all bile soluble. However, they did not agglutinate with anti-pneumococcal capsular antibodies and were also far more resistant to antimicrobial agents than typeable pneumococci isolated in the same period. Genotypic characterization of these isolates and control isolates by both multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) showed that only a single isolate was genetically considered to be a true S. pneumoniae isolate, and that the remaining 11 non-typable isolates were indeed distinct from true pneumococci. Of these, 10 most closely resembled a subgroup of Streptococcus mitis isolates genetically, while one strain was identified as a Streptococcus pseudopneumoniae isolate. CGH also showed that a considerable part of the proposed pneumococcal core genome, including many of the known pneumococcal virulence factors, was conserved in the non-typable isolates. Sequencing of part of the 16S rRNA gene and investigation for the presence of ply by PCR corroborated these results. In conclusion, our findings confirm the close relationship between streptococci of the Mitis group, and show that both MLSA and CGH enable pneumococci to be distinguished from other Mitis group streptococci.

Phylogenetic analyses and detection of viridans streptococci based on sequences and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of the rod shape-determining protein gene

Background

Population analysis of viridans streptococci is important because these species are associated with dental caries, bacteremia, and subacute endocarditis, in addition to being important members of the human oral commensal microbiota.

Design

In this study, we phylogenetically analyzed the rod shape-determining protein gene (rodA), which is associated with cellular morphology, cell division, and sensitivity for antibiotics, and demonstrated that the diversity of the rodA gene is sufficient to identify viridans streptococci at the species level. Moreover, we developed a more convenient denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) method based on the diversity of the rodA gene (rodA-DGGE) for detecting nine dominant streptococcal species in human saliva, namely, Streptococcus sanguinis, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus parasanguinis, Streptococcus gordonii, Streptococcus vestibularis, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus mutans, and Streptococcus sobrinus.

Results

This rodA-DGGE method proved useful in detecting viridans streptococci without cultivation, isolation, and phenotypic characterization.

Conclusion

Analysis of the oral microbiota by rodA-DGGE offers a higher resolution than the conventional DGGE using 16S rDNA and may be an alternative in the microbial diagnosis of streptococcal infection.

Population structure of Streptococcus oralis

Streptococcus oralis is a member of the normal human oral microbiota, capable of opportunistic pathogenicity; like related oral streptococci, it exhibits appreciable phenotypic and genetic variation. A multilocus sequence typing (MLST) scheme for S. oralis was developed and the resultant data analysed to examine the population structure of the species. Analysis of 113 isolates, confirmed as belonging to the S. oralis/mitis group by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, characterized the population as highly diverse and undergoing inter- and intra-species recombination with a probable clonal complex structure. ClonalFrame analysis of these S. oralis isolates along with examples of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus pseudopneumoniae grouped the named species into distinct, coherent populations and did not support the clustering of S. pseudopneumoniae with S. mitis as reported previously using distance-based methods. Analysis of the individual loci suggested that this discrepancy was due to the possible hybrid nature of S. pseudopneumoniae. The data are available on the public MLST website (http://pubmlst.org/soralis/).

A new Borrelia species defined by multilocus sequence analysis of housekeeping genes

Analysis of Lyme borreliosis (LB) spirochetes, using a novel multilocus sequence analysis scheme, revealed that OspA serotype 4 strains (a rodent-associated ecotype) of Borrelia garinii were sufficiently genetically distinct from bird-associated B. garinii strains to deserve species status. We suggest that OspA serotype 4 strains be raised to species status and named Borrelia bavariensis sp. nov. The rooted phylogenetic trees provide novel insights into the evolutionary history of LB spirochetes.

Adhesion determinants of the Streptococcus species

Streptococci are clinically important Gram-positive bacteria that are capable to cause a wide variety of diseases in humans and animals. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA sequences of the streptococcal species reveal a clustering pattern, reflecting, with a few exceptions, their pathogenic potential and ecological preferences. Microbial adhesion to host tissues is the initial critical event in the pathogenesis of most infections. Streptococci use multiple adhesins to attach to the epithelium, and their expression is regulated in response to environmental and growth conditions. Bacterial adhesins recognize and bind cell surface molecules and extracellular matrix components through specific domains that for certain adhesin families have been well defined and found conserved across the streptococcal species. In this review, we present the different streptococcal adhesin families categorized on the basis of their adhesive properties and structural characteristics, and, when available, we focus the attention on conserved functional domains.

Hyper-recombination, diversity, and antibiotic resistance in pneumococcus

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a pathogen of global importance that frequently transfers genetic material between strains and on occasion across species boundaries. In an analysis of 1930 pneumococcal genotypes from six housekeeping genes and 94 genotypes from related species, we identified mosaic genotypes representing admixture between populations and found that these were significantly associated with resistance to several classes of antibiotics. We hypothesize that these observations result from a history of hyper-recombination, which means that these strains are more likely to acquire both divergent genetic material and resistance determinants. This could have consequences for the reemergence of drug resistance after pneumococcal vaccination and also for our understanding of diversification and speciation in recombinogenic bacteria.