Lessons from the crystallographic analysis of small molecule binding to human serum albumin

The five-to-six-coordination transition of ferric human serum heme-albumin is allosterically-modulated by ibuprofen and warfarin: a combined XAS and MD study

Human serum albumin (HSA) is involved physiologically in heme scavenging; in turn, heme-albumin (HSA-heme-Fe) displays globin-like properties. Here, the allosteric effect of ibuprofen and warfarin on the local atomic structure around the ferric heme-Fe (heme-Fe(III)) atom of HSA-heme-Fe (HSA-heme-Fe(III)) has been probed by Fe-K edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The quantitative analysis of the Fe-K edge extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) signals and modeling of the near edge (XANES) spectral features demonstrated that warfarin and ibuprofen binding modify the local structure of the heme-Fe(III). Combined XAS data analysis and targeted molecular dynamics (MD) simulations provided atomic resolution insights of protein structural rearrangements required to accommodate the heme-Fe(III) upon ibuprofen and warfarin binding. In the absence of drugs, the heme-Fe(III) atom is penta-coordinated having distorted 4+1 configuration made by the nitrogen atoms of the porphyrin ring and the oxygen phenoxy atom of the Tyr161 residue. MD simulations show that ibuprofen and warfarin association to the secondary fatty acid (FA) binding site 2 (FA2) induces a reorientation of domain I of HSA-heme-Fe(III), this leads to the redirection of the His146 residue providing an additional bond to the heme-Fe(III) atom, providing the 5+1 configuration. The comparison of Fe-K edge XANES spectra calculated using MD structures with those obtained experimentally confirms the reliability of the proposed structural model. As a whole, combining XAS and MD simulations it has been possible to provide a reliable model of the heme-Fe(III) atom coordination state and to understand the complex allosteric transition occurring in HSA-heme-Fe(III) upon ibuprofen and warfarin binding.

Synchrotron-based small-angle X-ray scattering of proteins in solution

With recent advances in data analysis algorithms, X-ray detectors and synchrotron sources, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) has become much more accessible to the structural biology community. Although limited to ∼10 Å resolution, SAXS can provide a wealth of structural information on biomolecules in solution and is compatible with a wide range of experimental conditions. SAXS is thus an attractive alternative when crystallography is not possible. Moreover, advanced use of SAXS can provide unique insight into biomolecular behavior that can only be observed in solution, such as large conformational changes and transient protein-protein interactions. Unlike crystal diffraction data, however, solution scattering data are subtle in appearance, highly sensitive to sample quality and experimental errors and easily misinterpreted. In addition, synchrotron beamlines that are dedicated to SAXS are often unfamiliar to the nonspecialist. Here we present a series of procedures that can be used for SAXS data collection and basic cross-checks designed to detect and avoid aggregation, concentration effects, radiation damage, buffer mismatch and other common problems. Human serum albumin (HSA) serves as a convenient and easily replicated example of just how subtle these problems can sometimes be, but also of how proper technique can yield pristine data even in problematic cases. Because typical data collection times at a synchrotron are only one to several days, we recommend that the sample purity, homogeneity and solubility be extensively optimized before the experiment.

Effect of long-chain Fatty acids on the binding of triflupromazine to human serum albumin: a spectrophotometric study

Human serum albumin (HSA) in the blood binds long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs), and the number of bound LCFAs varies from 1 to 7 depending on the physical condition of the body. In this study, the influence of LCFA-HSA binding on drug-HSA binding was studied using triflupromazine (TFZ), a psychotropic phenothiazine drug, in a buffer (0.1 M NaCl, pH 7.40, 37°C) by a second-derivative spectrophotometric method which can suppress the residual background signal effects of HSA observed in the absorption spectra. The examined LCFAs were caprylic acid (CPA), lauric acid (LRA), oleic acid (OLA), and linoleic acid (LNA), respectively. Using the derivative intensity change of TFZ induced by the addition of HSA containing LCFA, the binding mode of TFZ was predicted to be a partition-like nonspecific binding. The binding constant (K M⁻¹) showed an increase according to the LCFA content in HSA for LRA, OLA, and LNA up to an LCFA/HSA molar ratio of 3–4. However, at higher ratios the K value decreased, i.e. for OLA and LNA, at an LCFA/HSA ratio of 6–7, the K value decreased to 40% of the value for HSA alone. In contrast, CPA, having the shortest chain length (8 carbons) among the studied LCFAs, induced a 20% decrease in the K value regardless of its content in HSA. Since the pharmacological activity of a drug is closely related to the unbound drug concentration in the blood, the results of the present study are pharmaco-kinetically, pharmacologically, and clinically very important.

A novel tumor targeting drug carrier for optical imaging and therapy

Human serum albumin (HSA), a naturally abundant protein in blood plasma and tissue fluids, has an extraordinary ligand-binding capacity and is advocated as a drug carrier to facilitate drug delivery. To render it tumor targeting specificity, we generated a recombinant HSA fused with the amino-terminal fragment (ATF) of urokinase, allowing the fusion protein to bind to urokinase receptor (uPAR), which is shown to have a high expression level in many tumors, but not in normal tissues. To test the efficacy of this bifunctional protein (ATF-HSA), a hydrophobic photosensitizer (mono-substituted β-carboxy phthalocyanine zinc, CPZ) was chosen as a cytotoxic agent. A dilution-incubation-purification (DIP) strategy was developed to load the ATF-HSA with this CPZ, forming a 1:1 molecular complex (ATF-HSA:CPZ). We demonstrated that CPZ was indeed embedded inside ATF-HSA at the fatty acid binding site 1 (FA1) of HSA, giving a hydrodynamic radius of 7.5 nm, close to HSA's (6.5 nm). ATF-HSA:CPZ showed high stability and remarkable optical and photophysical properties in aqueous solution. In addition, the molecular complex ATF-HSA:CPZ can bind to recombinant uPAR in vitro and uPAR on tumor cell surfaces, and was efficient in photodynamic killing of tumor cells. The tumor-killing potency of this molecular complex was further demonstrated in a tumor-bearing mouse model at a dose of 0.080 μmol / kg, or 0.050 mg CPZ / kg of mouse body weight. Using fluorescent molecular tomography (FMT), ATF-HSA:CPZ was shown to accumulate specifically in tumors, and importantly, such tumor retention was higher than that of HSA:CPZ. Together, these results indicate that ATF-HSA:CPZ is not only an efficient tumor-specific cytotoxic agent, but also an useful tumor-specific imaging probe. This bifunctional protein ATF-HSA can also be used as a drug carrier for other types of cytotoxic or imaging agents to render them specificity for uPAR-expressing tumors.

Interactive association of drugs binding to human serum albumin

Human serum albumin (HSA) is an abundant plasma protein, which attracts great interest in the pharmaceutical industry since it can bind a remarkable variety of drugs impacting their delivery and efficacy and ultimately altering the drug’s pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Additionally, HSA is widely used in clinical settings as a drug delivery system due to its potential for improving targeting while decreasing the side effects of drugs. It is thus of great importance from the viewpoint of pharmaceutical sciences to clarify the structure, function, and properties of HSA–drug complexes. This review will succinctly outline the properties of binding site of drugs in IIA subdomain within the structure of HSA. We will also give an overview on the binding characterization of interactive association of drugs to human serum albumin that may potentially lead to significant clinical applications.

Binding properties of food colorant allura red with human serum albumin in vitro

Allura red (AR) is a widely used colorant in food industry, but may have a potential security risk. In this study, the properties of interaction between AR and human serum albumin (HSA) in vitro were determined by fluorescence, UV-Vis absorption and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy combining with multivariate curve resolution-alternating least squares (MCR-ALS) chemometrics and molecular modeling approaches. An expanded UV-Vis data matrix was resolved by MCR-ALS method, and the concentration profiles and pure spectra for the three reaction components (AR, HSA, and AR-HSA complex) of the system were then successfully obtained to evaluate the progress interaction of AR with HSA. The calculated thermodynamic parameters indicated that hydrogen binding and hydrophobic interactions played major roles in the binding process, and the interaction induced a decrease in the protein surface hydrophobicity. The competitive experiments revealed that AR mainly located in Sudlow's site I of HSA, and this result was further supported by molecular modeling studies. Analysis of CD spectra found that the addition of AR induced the conformational changes of HSA. This study have provided new insight into the mechanism of interaction between AR and HSA.

NMR metabolomics profiling of blood plasma mimics shows that medium- and long-chain fatty acids differently release metabolites from human serum albumin

Metabolite profiling by NMR of body fluids is increasingly used to successfully differentiate patients from healthy individuals. Metabolites and their concentrations are direct reporters of body biochemistry. However, in blood plasma the NMR-detected free-metabolite concentrations are also strongly affected by interactions with the abundant plasma proteins, which have as of yet not been considered much in metabolic profiling. We previously reported that many of the common NMR-detected metabolites in blood plasma bind to human serum albumin (HSA) and many are released by fatty acids present in fatted HSA. HSA is the most abundant plasma protein and main transporter of endogenous and exogenous metabolites. Here, we show by NMR how the two most common fatty acids (FAs) in blood plasma - the long-chain FA, stearate (C18:0) and medium-chain FA, myristate (C14:0) - affect metabolite-HSA interaction. Of the set of 18 common NMR-detected metabolites, many are released by stearate and/or myristate, lactate appearing the most strongly affected. Myristate, but not stearate, reduces HSA-binding of phenylalanine and pyruvate. Citrate signals were NMR invisible in the presence of HSA. Only at high myristate-HSA mole ratios 11:1, is citrate sufficiently released to be detected. Finally, we find that limited dilution of blood-plasma mimics releases HSA-bound metabolites, a finding confirmed in real blood plasma samples. Based on these findings, we provide recommendations for NMR experiments for quantitative metabolite profiling.

Comparison of binding characterization of two antiviral drugs to human serum albumin

Ribavirin and lamivudine are representatives of antiviral drugs that are widely used to treat viral infections, especially chronic liver disease. To compare binding mechanism and behavior of antiviral drugs with human serum albumin (HSA), we performed fluorescence spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography to investigate the interactions of ribavirin and lamivudine with HSA. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed ribavirin and lamivudine inhibit binding affinity each other. Our results further demonstrated that ribavirin and lamivdudine interaction with HSA could be affected by the presence of other compounds, including the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, indometacin. X-ray structures revealed that ribavirin and lamivudine bind in IIA subdomain of HSA mainly by forming hydrogen bond and hydrophobic interactions forces. The carboxamido of ribavirin forms hydrogen bonds with Arg222; Hydroxyl group (6) of ribavirin forms hydrogen bond with Arg257. Hydroxyl group (15) of lamivudine forms hydrogen bond with Arg222; amino group (4) of lamivudine forms hydrogen bond with carbonyl of Arg257. Our results reveal the key biochemical and structural characteristics of the HSA interaction with ribavirin and lamivudine, providing guidance for future development of ribavirin- and lamivudine-based compounds and a drug-HSA delivery system.

Synthetic cationic antimicrobial peptides bind with their hydrophobic parts to drug site II of human serum albumin

Background

Many biologically active compounds bind to plasma transport proteins, and this binding can be either advantageous or disadvantageous from a drug design perspective. Human serum albumin (HSA) is one of the most important transport proteins in the cardiovascular system due to its great binding capacity and high physiological concentration. HSA has a preference for accommodating neutral lipophilic and acidic drug-like ligands, but is also surprisingly able to bind positively charged peptides. Understanding of how short cationic antimicrobial peptides interact with human serum albumin is of importance for developing such compounds into the clinics.

Results

The binding of a selection of short synthetic cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs) to human albumin with binding affinities in the μM range is described. Competitive isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and NMR WaterLOGSY experiments mapped the binding site of the CAPs to the well-known drug site II within subdomain IIIA of HSA. Thermodynamic and structural analysis revealed that the binding is exclusively driven by interactions with the hydrophobic moieties of the peptides, and is independent of the cationic residues that are vital for antimicrobial activity. Both of the hydrophobic moieties comprising the peptides were detected to interact with drug site II by NMR saturation transfer difference (STD) group epitope mapping (GEM) and INPHARMA experiments. Molecular models of the complexes between the peptides and albumin were constructed using docking experiments, and support the binding hypothesis and confirm the overall binding affinities of the CAPs.

Conclusions

The biophysical and structural characterizations of albumin-peptide complexes reported here provide detailed insight into how albumin can bind short cationic peptides. The hydrophobic elements of the peptides studied here are responsible for the main interaction with HSA. We suggest that albumin binding should be taken into careful consideration in antimicrobial peptide studies, as the systemic distribution can be significantly affected by HSA interactions.

Human serum albumin binding to silica nanoparticles – effect of protein fatty acid ligand

Fat containing and defatted human serum albumin adsorption to silica nanoparticles have different structures and time dependence to form.

Molecular interactions of benzophenone UV filters with human serum albumin revealed by spectroscopic techniques and molecular modeling

Benzophenone (BP)-type UV filters have been widely used in many personal care products to protect human from UV exposure. Their dermal applications can cause direct human health risk following accumulation in bloodstream. Few studies have addressed whether BP-type UV filters could bind and alter the structure and function of human serum albumin (HSA), the major carrier protein in plasma. Four benzophenones, BP-1, BP-2, BP-3 and BP-8 were selected to investigate their potentially toxic interactions with HSA and the intrinsic binding mechanism using combined spectroscopies and molecular docking techniques. Four benzophenones significantly quench the intrinsic fluorescence of HSA via static mode. The competitive binding fluorescence assay and molecular docking both revealed that the benzophenones bind at site II of HSA. Their binding constants range from 1.91 × 10(4)M(-1) to 12.96 × 10(4)M(-1) at 296 K. BP-8 interacts with HSA mainly through hydrogen bonding interactions and van der Waals interactions, while hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic interactions are dominant for interactions between BP-1, BP-2, BP-3 and HSA. Molecular docking revealed that the changes in structural moiety and hydrophobicity of four benzophenones account for their different binding affinities. As further revealed by circular dichroism and time-resolved fluorescence decay, these benzophenones cause global and local structural changes of HSA, which illustrates their potential toxicity to cause structural damage of HSA. Two degradation products of BP-3 have higher binding affinities to HSA, suggesting higher potencies in causing adverse effects on human health.

Fluorescent dye cocktail for multiplex drug-site mapping on human serum albumin

Elucidating how molecules bind to HSA is fundamental for predicting drug incompatibilities. Through combinatorial screening, we identified a novel fluorescent dye (BD140) with turn-on fluorescence emission and specific binding at HSA drug site 2. We further combined it with dansylamide to develop a fluorescent dye cocktail for high-throughput mapping of the interaction between therapeutics at HSA drug-binding sites.

The location of the high- and low-affinity bilirubin-binding sites on serum albumin: ligand-competition analysis investigated by circular dichroism

The locations of three bilirubin (BR)-binding sites with different affinities were identified as subdomains IB, IIA and IIIA for five mammalian serum albumins (SAs): human (HSA), bovine (BSA), rat, (RSA), rabbit (RbSA) and sheep (SSA). The stereoselectivity of a high-affinity BR-binding site was identified in the BR/SA=1/1 system by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, the sites with low affinity to BR were analyzed using difference CD. Site-specific ligand-competition experiments with ibuprofen (marker for subdomain IIIA) and hemin (marker for subdomain IB) did not reveal any changes for the BR/SA=1/1 system and showed a decrease of the bound BR at BR/SA=3/1. Both sites were identified as sites with low affinity to BR. The correlation between stereoselectivity and the arrangement of Arg-Lys residues indicated similarity between the BR-binding sites in subdomain IIIA for all of the SAs studied. Subdomain IB in HSA, BSA, SSA and RbSA has P-stereoselectivity while in RSA it has M-selectivity toward BR. A ligand-competition experiment with gossypol shows a decrease of the CD signal of bound BR for the BR/SA=1/1 system as well as for BR/SA=3/1. Subdomain IIA was assigned as a high-affinity BR-binding site. The P-stereoselectivity of this site in HSA (and RSA, RbSA) was caused by the right-hand localization of charged residues R257/R218-R222, whereas the left-hand orientation of R257/R218-R199 led to the M-stereoselectivity of the primary binding site in BSA (and SSA).

Albumin-drug interaction and its clinical implication

BACKGROUND

Human serum albumin acts as a reservoir and transport protein for endogenous (e.g. fatty acids or bilirubin) and exogenous compounds (e.g. drugs or nutrients) in the blood. The binding of a drug to albumin is a major determinant of its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

The present review discusses recent findings regarding the nature of drug binding sites, drug-albumin binding in certain diseased states or in the presence of coadministered drugs, and the potential of utilizing albumin-drug interactions in clinical applications.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Drug-albumin interactions appear to predominantly occur at one or two specific binding sites. The nature of these drug binding sites has been fundamentally investigated as to location, size, charge, hydrophobicity or changes that can occur under conditions such as the content of the endogenous substances in question. Such findings can be useful tools for the analysis of drug-drug interactions or protein binding in diseased states. A change in protein binding is not always a problem in terms of drug therapy, but it can be used to enhance the efficacy of therapeutic agents or to enhance the accumulation of radiopharmaceuticals to targets for diagnostic purposes. Furthermore, several extracorporeal dialysis procedures using albumin-containing dialysates have proven to be an effective tool for removing endogenous toxins or overdosed drugs from patients.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Recent findings related to albumin-drug interactions as described in this review are useful for providing safer and efficient therapies and diagnoses in clinical settings. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Serum Albumin.

α-Tocopherol binding to human serum albumin

Given the ability of human serum albumin (HSA) to bind hydrophobic ligands, the binding mode of α-tocopherol, the most representative member of the vitamin E family, is reported. α-Tocopherol binds to HSA with Kd0 = (7.0 ± 3.0) × 10(-6) M (pH 7.2, 25.0°C). Competitive and allosteric modulation of α-tocopherol binding to full-length and truncated (Asp1-Glu382) HSA by endogenous and exogenous ligands suggests that it accommodates preferentially in the FA3-FA4 site. As HSA is taken up into cells, colocalizes with the α-tocopherol transfer protein, and contributes to ligand secretion via ABCA1, it might participate in the distribution of α-tocopherol between plasma, cells, and tissues.

Structural mechanism of ring-opening reaction of glucose by human serum albumin

Glucose reacts with proteins nonenzymatically under physiological conditions. Such glycation is exacerbated in diabetic patients with high levels of blood sugar and induces various complications. Human albumin serum (HSA) is the most abundant protein in plasma and is glycated by glucose. The glycation sites on HSA remain controversial among different studies. Here, we report two protein crystal structures of HSA in complex with either glucose or fructose. These crystal structures reveal the presence of linear forms of sugar for both monosaccharides. The linear form of glucose forms a covalent bond to Lys-195 of HSA, but this is not the case for fructose. Based on these structures, we propose a mechanism for glucose ring opening involving both residues Lys-195 and Lys-199. These results provide mechanistic insights to understand the glucose ring-opening reaction and the glycation of proteins by monosaccharides.

GA/GB fold switching may modulate fatty acid transfer from human serum albumin to bacteria

Human serum albumin (HSA) accounts for most of the functions of plasma. Among others, HSA serves as a carrier and a solubilizer for many endogenous and exogenous ligands, including fatty acids (FAs) as well as peptides and proteins such as the GA module of the bacterial poly(A)-binding (PAB) protein. Although the biological function(s) of the GA module of the bacterial PAB protein is unknown, the acquisition of the GA module adds selective advantages to the bacterium in terms of growth rate and increase in virulence, probably by providing the bacteria with FAs and, possibly, other nutrients transported by HSA. Here, we hypothesize that the GA module may undergo a structural transition from the all-α form to the 4β+α form typical of the GB domains upon binding of a FA molecule, as part of the mechanism which allows the bacterial PAB protein to extract FAs from HSA.

In Silico Prediction of Interactions between Site II on Human Serum Albumin and Profen Drugs

Since binding of a drug molecule to human serum albumin (HSA) significantly affects the pharmacokinetics of the drug, it is highly desirable to predict the binding affinity of the drug. Profen drugs are a widely used class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and it has been reported that several members of the profen class specifically bind to one of the main binding sites named site II. The actual binding mode of only ibuprofen has been directly confirmed by X-ray crystallography. Therefore, it is of interest whether other profen drugs are site II binders. Docking simulations using multiple template structures of HSA from three crystal structures of complexes between drugs and HSA have demonstrated that most of the currently available profen drugs should be site II binders.

NMR identification of endogenous metabolites interacting with fatted and non-fatted human serum albumin in blood plasma: Fatty acids influence the HSA-metabolite interaction

Metabolites and their concentrations are direct reporters on body biochemistry. Thanks to technical developments metabolic profiling of body fluids, such as blood plasma, by for instance NMR has in the past decade become increasingly accurate enabling successful clinical diagnostics. Human Serum Albumin (HSA) is the main plasma protein (∼60% of all plasma protein) and responsible for the transport of endogenous (e.g. fatty acids) and exogenous metabolites, which it achieves thanks to its multiple binding sites and its flexibility. HSA has been extensively studied with regard to its binding of drugs (exogenous metabolites), but only to a lesser extent with regard to its binding of endogenous (non-fatty acid) metabolites. To obtain correct NMR measured metabolic profiles of blood plasma and/or potentially extract information on HSA and fatty acids content, it is necessary to characterize these endogenous metabolite/plasma protein interactions. Here, we investigate these metabolite-HSA interactions in blood plasma and blood plasma mimics. The latter contain the roughly twenty metabolites routinely detected by NMR (also most abundant) in normal relative concentrations with fatted or non-fatted HSA added or not. First, we find that chemical shift changes are small and seen only for a few of the metabolites. In contrast, a significant number of the metabolites display reduced resonance integrals and reduced free concentrations in the presence of HSA or fatted HSA. For slow-exchange (or strong) interactions, NMR resonance integrals report the free metabolite concentration, while for fast exchange (weak binding) the chemical shift reports on the binding. Hence, these metabolites bind strongly to HSA and/or fatted HSA, but to a limited degree because for most metabolites their concentration is smaller than the HSA concentration. Most interestingly, fatty acids decrease the metabolite-HSA binding quite significantly for most of the interacting metabolites. We further find that competition between the metabolites for binding is absent for most of these metabolites. These mappings in plasma mimics may thus open new opportunities for improved metabolic profiling of blood plasma. For instance, correct metabolite concentrations can be determined for the non-interacting metabolites and/or concentration corrections made for interacting metabolites. Secondly, the interacting metabolites could be used to act as reporters on HSA and fatty acid concentration in plasma, and thus potentially act as biomarker in diagnostic studies of trauma or cardiovascular diseases. Finally, we find in the blood plasma mimics that after ultrafiltration, commonly used to remove the protein from plasma, the measured concentration equals the total metabolite concentration, except for the strongest binding metabolite citrate.

A combined spectroscopic, docking and molecular dynamics simulation approach to probing binding of a Schiff base complex to human serum albumin

The molecular mechanism of a Schiff base complex ((E)-((E)-2-(3-((E)-((E)-3(mercapto (methylthio) methylene)cyclopentylidene) amino) propylimino) cyclopentylidene) (methylthio) methanethiol) binding to Human Serum Albumin (HSA) was investigated by fluorescence quenching, absorption spectroscopy, molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation procedures. The fluorescence emission of HSA was quenched by this Schiff base complex that has been analyzed for estimation of binding parameters. The titration of Schiff base solution by various amount of HSA was also followed by UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and the corresponding data were analyzed by suitable models. The results revealed that this Schiff base has an ability to bind strongly to HSA and formed 1:1 complex. Energy transfer mechanism of quenching was discussed and the value of 5.45 ± 0.06 nm was calculated as the mean distance between the bound complex and the Trp residue. This is implying the high possibility of energy transfer from HSA to this Schiff base complex. Molecular docking results indicated that the main active binding site for this Schiff base complex is site III in subdomain IB. Moreover, MD simulation results suggested that this Schiff base complex can interact with HSA, without affecting the secondary structure of HSA but probably with a slight modification of its tertiary structure. MD simulations, molecular docking and experimental data reciprocally supported each other.

Regulation of amantadine hydrochloride binding with IIA subdomain of human serum albumin by fatty acid chains

Human serum albumin (HSA) is a major protein component of blood plasma that has been exploited to bind and transport a wide variety of endogenous and exogenous organic compounds. Although anionic drugs readily associate with the IIA subdomain of HSA, most cationic drugs poorly associate with HSA at this subdomain. In this study, we propose to improve the association between cationic drugs and HSA by modifying HSA with fatty acid chains. For our experiments, we tested amantadine hydrochloride, a cationic drug with antiviral and antiparkinsonian effects. Our results suggest that extensive myristoylation of HSA can help stabilize the interaction between amantadine and HSA in vitro. Our X-ray crystallography data further elucidate the structural basis of this regulation. Additionally, our crystallography data suggest that anionic drugs, with a functional carboxylate group, may enhance the association between amantadine and HSA by a mechanism similar to myristoylation. Ultimately, our results provide critical structural insight into this novel association between cationic drugs and the HSA IIA subdomain, raising the tempting possibility to fully exploit the unique binding capacity of HSA's IIA subdomain to achieve simultaneous delivery of anionic and cationic drugs.

Hypoalbuminemia

Hypoalbuminemia is frequently observed in hospitalized patients and it can be associated with several different diseases, including cirrhosis, malnutrition, nephrotic syndrome and sepsis. Regardless of its cause, hypoalbuminemia has a strong predictive value on mortality and morbidity. Over the years, the rationale for the use of albumin has been extensively debated and the indications for human serum albumin supplementation have changed. As the knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms of the pertinent diseases has increased, the indications for intravenous albumin supplementation have progressively decreased. The purpose of this brief article is to review the causes of hypoalbuminemia and the current indications for intravenous administration of albumin. Based on the available data and considering the costs, albumin supplementation should be limited to well-defined clinical scenarios and to include patients with cirrhosis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, patients with cirrhosis undergoing large volume paracentesis, the treatment of type 1 hepatorenal syndrome, fluid resuscitation of patients with sepsis, and therapeutic plasmapheresis with exchange of large volumes of plasma. While albumin supplementation is accepted also in other clinical situations such as burns, nephrotic syndrome, hemorrhagic shock and prevention of hepatorenal syndrome, within these contexts it does not represent a first-choice treatment nor is its use supported by widely accepted guidelines.

Structures of bovine, equine and leporine serum albumin

Serum albumin first appeared in early vertebrates and is present in the plasma of all mammals. Its canonical structure supported by a conserved set of disulfide bridges is maintained in all mammalian serum albumins and any changes in sequence are highly correlated with evolution of the species. Previous structural investigations of mammalian serum albumins have only concentrated on human serum albumin (HSA), most likely as a consequence of crystallization and diffraction difficulties. Here, the crystal structures of serum albumins isolated from bovine, equine and leporine blood plasma are reported. The structure of bovine serum albumin (BSA) was determined at 2.47 Å resolution, two crystal structures of equine serum albumin (ESA) were determined at resolutions of 2.32 and 2.04 Å, and that of leporine serum albumin (LSA) was determined at 2.27 Å resolution. These structures were compared in detail with the structure of HSA. The ligand-binding pockets in BSA, ESA and LSA revealed different amino-acid compositions and conformations in comparison to HSA in some cases; however, much more significant differences were observed on the surface of the molecules. BSA, which is one of the most extensively utilized proteins in laboratory practice and is used as an HSA substitute in many experiments, exhibits only 75.8% identity compared with HSA. The higher resolution crystal structure of ESA highlights the binding properties of this protein because it includes several bound compounds from the crystallization solution that provide additional structural information about potential ligand-binding pockets.

Assessment of new cationic porphyrin binding to plasma proteins by planar microarray and spectroscopic methods

Porphyrins have a unique aromatic structure determining particular photochemical properties that make them promising photosensitizers for anticancer therapy. Previously, we synthesized a set of artificial porphyrins by modifying side-chain functional groups and introducing different metals into the core structure. Here, we have performed a comparative study of the binding properties of 29 cationic porphyrins with plasma proteins by using microarray and spectroscopic approaches. The porphyrins were noncovalently immobilized onto hydrogel-covered glass slides and probed to bio-conjugated human and bovine serum albumins, as well as to human hemoglobin. The signal detection was carried out at the near-infrared fluorescence wavelength (800 nm) that enabled the effect of intrinsic visible wavelength fluorescence emitted by the porphyrins tested to be discarded. Competition assays on porphyrin microarrays indicated that long-chain fatty acids (FAs) (palmitic and stearic acids) decrease porphyrin binding to both serum albumin and hemoglobin. The binding affinity of different types of cationic porphyrins for plasma proteins was quantitatively assessed in the absence and presence of FAs by fluorescent and absorption spectroscopy. Molecular docking analysis confirmed results that new porphyrins and long-chain FAs compete for the common binding site FA1 in human serum albumin and meso-substituted functional groups in porphyrins play major role in the modulation of conformational rearrangements of the protein.

Study of transforming growth factor alpha for the maintenance of human embryonic stem cells

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) have great potential for regenerative medicine as they have self-regenerative and pluripotent properties. Feeder cells or their conditioned medium are required for the maintenance of hESC in the undifferentiated state. Feeder cells have been postulated to produce growth factors and extracellular molecules for maintaining hESC in culture. The present study has aimed at identifying these molecules. The gene expression of supportive feeder cells, namely human foreskin fibroblast (hFF-1) and non-supportive human lung fibroblast (WI-38) was analyzed by microarray and 445 genes were found to be differentially expressed. Gene ontology analysis showed that 20.9% and 15.5% of the products of these genes belonged to the extracellular region and regulation of transcription activity, respectively. After validation of selected differentially expressed genes in both human and mouse feeder cells, transforming growth factor α (TGFα) was chosen for functional study. The results demonstrated that knockdown or protein neutralization of TGFα in hFF-1 led to increased expression of early differentiation markers and lower attachment rates of hESC. More importantly, TGFα maintained pluripotent gene expression levels, attachment rates and pluripotency by the in vitro differentiation of H9 under non-supportive conditions. TGFα treatment activated the p44/42 MAPK pathway but not the PI3K/Akt pathway. In addition, TGFα treatment increased the expression of pluripotent markers, NANOG and SSEA-3 but had no effects on the proliferation of hESCs. This study of the functional role of TGFα provides insights for the development of clinical grade hESCs for therapeutic applications.

Bioevaluation of human serum albumin-hesperidin bioconjugate: insight into protein vector function and conformation

Hesperidin is a flavanone glycoside widely available for dietary intake in citrus fruits or citrus fruit derived products; however, exhaustive and reliable data are scarcely available for biological activity when it exerts protective health effects in humans. The principal intent of this work is to check binding domain and structural changes of human serum albumin (HSA), the primary carrier of flavonoids, in blood plasma association with hesperidin by employing molecular modeling, steady state and time-resolved fluorescence, and circular dichroism (CD) methods. From molecular modeling simulations, subdomains IIA and IIIA, which correspond to Sudlow's sites I and II, respectively, were earmarked to possess affinity for hesperidin, but the affinity of site I with flavanone is greater than that of site II. This corroborates the site-specific probe and hydrophobic 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid (ANS) displacement results placing the hesperidin at warfarin-azapropazone and indole-benzodiazepine sites. Steady state and time-resolved fluorescence manifested that static type, due to HSA-hesperidin complex formation (1.941 × 10(4) M(-1)), is the operative mechanism for the diminution in the tryptophan (Trp)-214 fluorescence. Moreover, via alterations in three-dimensional fluorescence and CD spectral properties, we can securely draw the conclusion that the polypeptide chain of HSA is partially destabilized after conjugation with hesperidin. We anticipate that this study can provide better knowledge of bioavailability such as absorption, biodistribution, and elimination, of hesperidin in vivo, to facilitate the comprehension of the biological responses to physiologically relevant flavanones.