Magnetic compass of birds is based on a molecule with optimal directional sensitivity

Cryptochrome: A photoreceptor with the properties of a magnetoreceptor?

It was recently discovered that the photoreceptor cryptochrome is involved in mediating magnetosensitive entrainment of the internal clock of fruit flies.1 This discovery follows other recent studies implicating a role of cryptochrome in mediating magnetic sensitivity in orientation responses of fruit flies2,3 and growth responses of plants.4 Such widespread use of the same molecule for mediating magnetic sensitivity might suggest that cryptochrome is in some way optimal for detecting the magnetic field of the earth and that the magnetoreception function cannot be easily taken over by other molecules. This raises the question what properties might set cryptochromes apart from other molecules in terms of their ability to detect the geomagnetic field. Here, we will discuss possible answers to this question. We will first review the likely biophysical mechanism by which magnetic fields can be detected by a photoreceptor and discuss what constitutes an optimal photo-magneto-receptor. We will then discuss in how far cryptochrome matches the profile of an optimal molecule and what further steps are required for more conclusive answers.

Visual but not trigeminal mediation of magnetic compass information in a migratory bird

Magnetic compass information has a key role in bird orientation, but the physiological mechanisms enabling birds to sense the Earth's magnetic field remain one of the unresolved mysteries in biology. Two biophysical mechanisms have become established as the most promising magnetodetection candidates. The iron-mineral-based hypothesis suggests that magnetic information is detected by magnetoreceptors in the upper beak and transmitted through the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve to the brain. The light-dependent hypothesis suggests that magnetic field direction is sensed by radical pair-forming photopigments in the eyes and that this visual signal is processed in cluster N, a specialized, night-time active, light-processing forebrain region. Here we report that European robins with bilateral lesions of cluster N are unable to show oriented magnetic-compass-guided behaviour but are able to perform sun compass and star compass orientation behaviour. In contrast, bilateral section of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve in European robins did not influence the birds' ability to use their magnetic compass for orientation. These data show that cluster N is required for magnetic compass orientation in this species and indicate that it may be specifically involved in processing of magnetic compass information. Furthermore, the data strongly suggest that a vision-mediated mechanism underlies the magnetic compass in this migratory songbird, and that the putative iron-mineral-based receptors in the upper beak connected to the brain by the trigeminal nerve are neither necessary nor sufficient for magnetic compass orientation in European robins.

Effect of magnetic fields on cryptochrome-dependent responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

The scientific literature describing the effects of weak magnetic fields on living systems contains a plethora of contradictory reports, few successful independent replication studies and a dearth of plausible biophysical interaction mechanisms. Most such investigations have been unsystematic, devoid of testable theoretical predictions and, ultimately, unconvincing. A recent study, of magnetic responses in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, however, stands out; it has a clear hypothesis-that seedling growth is magnetically sensitive as a result of photoinduced radical-pair reactions in cryptochrome photoreceptors-tested by measuring several cryptochrome-dependent responses, all of which proved to be enhanced in a magnetic field of intensity 500 muT. The potential importance of this study in the debate on putative effects of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields on human health prompted us to subject it to the 'gold standard' of independent replication. With experimental conditions chosen to match those of the original study, we have measured hypocotyl lengths and anthocyanin accumulation for Arabidopsis seedlings grown in a 500 microT magnetic field, with simultaneous control experiments at 50 microT. Additionally, we have determined hypocotyl lengths of plants grown in 50 microT, 1 mT and approximately 100 mT magnetic fields (with zero-field controls), measured gene (CHS, HY5 and GST) expression levels, investigated blue-light intensity effects and explored the influence of sucrose in the growth medium. In no case were consistent, statistically significant magnetic field responses detected.

Night-migratory garden warblers can orient with their magnetic compass using the left, the right or both eyes

Several studies have suggested that the magnetic compass of birds is located only in the right eye. However, here we show that night-migrating garden warblers (Sylvia borin) are able to perform magnetic compass orientation with both eyes open, with only the left eye open and with only the right eye open. We did not observe any clear lateralization of magnetic compass orientation behaviour in this migratory songbird, and, therefore, it seems that the suggested all-or-none lateralization of magnetic compass orientation towards the right eye only cannot be generalized to all birds, and that the answer to the question of whether magnetic compass orientation in birds is lateralized is probably not as simple as suggested previously.

Oscillating magnetic field disrupts magnetic orientation in Zebra finches, Taeniopygia guttata

Background

Zebra finches can be trained to use the geomagnetic field as a directional cue for short distance orientation. The physical mechanisms underlying the primary processes of magnetoreception are, however, largely unknown. Two hypotheses of how birds perceive magnetic information are mainly discussed, one dealing with modulation of radical pair processes in retinal structures, the other assuming that iron deposits in the upper beak of the birds are involved. Oscillating magnetic fields in the MHz range disturb radical pair mechanisms but do not affect magnetic particles. Thus, application of such oscillating fields in behavioral experiments can be used as a diagnostic tool to decide between the two alternatives.

Methods

In a setup that eliminates all directional cues except the geomagnetic field zebra finches were trained to search for food in the magnetic north/south axis. The birds were then tested for orientation performance in two magnetic conditions. In condition 1 the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field was shifted by 90 degrees using a helmholtz coil. In condition 2 a high frequently oscillating field (1.156 MHz) was applied in addition to the shifted field. Another group of birds was trained to solve the orientation task, but with visual landmarks as directional cue. The birds were then tested for their orientation performance in the same magnetic conditions as applied for the first experiment.

Results

The zebra finches could be trained successfully to orient in the geomagnetic field for food search in the north/south axis. They were also well oriented in test condition 1, with the magnetic field shifted horizontally by 90 degrees. In contrast, when the oscillating field was added, the directional choices during food search were randomly distributed. Birds that were trained to visually guided orientation showed no difference of orientation performance in the two magnetic conditions.

Conclusion

The results indicate that zebra finches use a receptor that bases on radical pair processes for sensing the direction of the earth magnetic field in this short distance orientation behavior.

Micromagnetic insight into a magnetoreceptor in birds: existence of magnetic field amplifiers in the beak

The Earth's magnetic field provides an important source of directional information for many living organisms, especially birds, but the sensory receptor responsible for magnetic field detection still has to be identified. Recently, magnetic iron oxide particles were detected in dendritic endings of the ophthalmic nerves in the skin of the upper beak of homing pigeons and were shown to fulfill the special prerequisites of a biological receptor. Here we study the proposed receptor theoretically and formulate the criteria for which it becomes operational and can be used for registering the weak magnetic fields as, e.g., the geomagnetic field, by a bird.

Magnetoreception in birds: no intensity window in "fixed direction" responses

Under 502 nm turquoise light combined with 590 nm yellow light and in total darkness, European robins, Erithacus rubecula, no longer prefer their migratory direction, but exhibit so-called fixed direction responses that do not show the seasonal change between spring and autumn. We tested robins under these light conditions in the local geomagnetic field of 46 microT, a field of twice this intensity, 92 microT, and a field of three times this intensity, 138 microT. Under all three magnetic conditions, the birds preferred the same easterly direction under turquoise-and-yellow light and the same northwesterly direction under dark, while they were oriented in their seasonally appropriate direction under control conditions. "Fixed direction" responses are thus not limited to a narrow intensity window as has been found for normal compass orientation. This can be attributed to their origin in the magnetite-based receptor in the upper beak, which operates according to fundamentally different principles than the radical pair mechanism in the retina mediating compass orientation. "Fixed direction" responses are possibly a relict of a receptor mechanism that changed its function, now mainly providing information on magnetic intensity.

Magnetoreception through cryptochrome may involve superoxide

In the last decades, it has been demonstrated that many animal species orient in the Earth magnetic field. One of the best-studied examples is the use of the geomagnetic field by migratory birds for orientation and navigation. However, the biophysical mechanism underlying animal magnetoreception is still not understood. One theory for magnetoreception in birds invokes the so-called radical-pair model. This mechanism involves a pair of reactive radicals, whose chemical fate can be influenced by the orientation with respect to the magnetic field of the Earth through Zeeman and hyperfine interactions. The fact that the geomagnetic field is weak, i.e., approximately 0.5 G, puts a severe constraint on the radical pair that can establish the magnetic compass sense. For a noticeable change of the reaction yield in a redirected geomagnetic field, the hyperfine interaction has to be as weak as the Earth field Zeeman interaction, i.e., unusually weak for an organic compound. Such weak hyperfine interaction can be achieved if one of the radicals is completely devoid of this interaction as realized in a radical pair containing an oxygen molecule as one of the radicals. Accordingly, we investigate here a possible radical pair-based reaction in the photoreceptor cryptochrome that reduces the protein's flavin group from its signaling state FADH* to the inactive state FADH- (which reacts to the likewise inactive FAD) by means of the superoxide radical, O2*-. We argue that the spin dynamics in the suggested reaction can act as a geomagnetic compass and that the very low physiological concentration (nM-microM) of otherwise toxic O2*- is sufficient, even favorable, for the biological function.

Magnetoreception through cryptochrome may involve superoxide

In the last decades, it has been demonstrated that many animal species orient in the Earth magnetic field. One of the best-studied examples is the use of the geomagnetic field by migratory birds for orientation and navigation. However, the biophysical mechanism underlying animal magnetoreception is still not understood. One theory for magnetoreception in birds invokes the so-called radical-pair model. This mechanism involves a pair of reactive radicals, whose chemical fate can be influenced by the orientation with respect to the magnetic field of the Earth through Zeeman and hyperfine interactions. The fact that the geomagnetic field is weak, i.e., approximately 0.5 G, puts a severe constraint on the radical pair that can establish the magnetic compass sense. For a noticeable change of the reaction yield in a redirected geomagnetic field, the hyperfine interaction has to be as weak as the Earth field Zeeman interaction, i.e., unusually weak for an organic compound. Such weak hyperfine interaction can be achieved if one of the radicals is completely devoid of this interaction as realized in a radical pair containing an oxygen molecule as one of the radicals. Accordingly, we investigate here a possible radical pair-based reaction in the photoreceptor cryptochrome that reduces the protein's flavin group from its signaling state FADH* to the inactive state FADH- (which reacts to the likewise inactive FAD) by means of the superoxide radical, O2*-. We argue that the spin dynamics in the suggested reaction can act as a geomagnetic compass and that the very low physiological concentration (nM-microM) of otherwise toxic O2*- is sufficient, even favorable, for the biological function.

Chemical magnetoreception in birds: the radical pair mechanism

Migratory birds travel vast distances each year, finding their way by various means, including a remarkable ability to perceive the Earth's magnetic field. Although it has been known for 40 years that birds possess a magnetic compass, avian magnetoreception is poorly understood at all levels from the primary biophysical detection events, signal transduction pathways and neurophysiology, to the processing of information in the brain. It has been proposed that the primary detector is a specialized ocular photoreceptor that plays host to magnetically sensitive photochemical reactions having radical pairs as fleeting intermediates. Here, we present a physical chemist's perspective on the "radical pair mechanism" of compass magnetoreception in birds. We outline the essential chemical requirements for detecting the direction of an Earth-strength approximately 50 microT magnetic field and comment on the likelihood that these might be satisfied in a biologically plausible receptor. Our survey concludes with a discussion of cryptochrome, the photoactive protein that has been put forward as the magnetoreceptor molecule.