From spatial orientation to food acquisition in echolocating bats

Linking the sender to the receiver: vocal adjustments by bats to maintain signal detection in noise

Short-term adjustments of signal characteristics allow animals to maintain reliable communication in noise. Noise-dependent vocal plasticity often involves simultaneous changes in multiple parameters. Here, we quantified for the first time the relative contributions of signal amplitude, duration, and redundancy for improving signal detectability in noise. To this end, we used a combination of behavioural experiments on pale spear-nosed bats (Phyllostomus discolor) and signal detection models. In response to increasing noise levels, all bats raised the amplitude of their echolocation calls by 1.8-7.9 dB (the Lombard effect). Bats also increased signal duration by 13%-85%, corresponding to an increase in detectability of 1.0-5.3 dB. Finally, in some noise conditions, bats increased signal redundancy by producing more call groups. Assuming optimal cognitive integration, this could result in a further detectability improvement by up to 4 dB. Our data show that while the main improvement in signal detectability was due to the Lombard effect, increasing signal duration and redundancy can also contribute markedly to improving signal detectability. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the observed adjustments of signal parameters in noise are matched to how these parameters are processed in the receiver's sensory system, thereby facilitating signal transmission in fluctuating environments.

Advances in the study of bat flight: the wing and the wind

Bats are diverse, speciose, and inhabit most of earth’s habitats, aided by powered flapping flight. The many traits that enable flight in these mammals have long attracted popular and research interest, but recent technological and conceptual advances have provided investigators with new kinds of information concerning diverse aspects of flight biology. As a consequence of these new data, our understanding of how bats fly has begun to undergo fundamental changes. Physical and neural science approaches are now beginning to inform understanding of structural architecture of wings. High-speed videography is dramatically expanding documentation of how bats fly. Experimental fluid dynamics and innovative physiological techniques profoundly influence how we interpret the ways bats produce aerodynamic forces as they execute distinctive flight behaviors and the mechanisms that underlie flight energetics. Here, we review how recent bat flight research has provided significant new insights into several important aspects of bat flight structure and function. We suggest that information coming from novel approaches offer opportunities to interconnect studies of wing structure, aerodynamics, and physiology more effectively, and to connect flight biology to newly emerging studies of bat evolution and ecology.

Sensorimotor Model of Obstacle Avoidance in Echolocating Bats

Bat echolocation is an ability consisting of many subtasks such as navigation, prey detection and object recognition. Understanding the echolocation capabilities of bats comes down to isolating the minimal set of acoustic cues needed to complete each task. For some tasks, the minimal cues have already been identified. However, while a number of possible cues have been suggested, little is known about the minimal cues supporting obstacle avoidance in echolocating bats. In this paper, we propose that the Interaural Intensity Difference (IID) and travel time of the first millisecond of the echo train are sufficient cues for obstacle avoidance. We describe a simple control algorithm based on the use of these cues in combination with alternating ear positions modeled after the constant frequency bat Rhinolophus rouxii. Using spatial simulations (2D and 3D), we show that simple phonotaxis can steer a bat clear from obstacles without performing a reconstruction of the 3D layout of the scene. As such, this paper presents the first computationally explicit explanation for obstacle avoidance validated in complex simulated environments. Based on additional simulations modelling the FM bat Phyllostomus discolor, we conjecture that the proposed cues can be exploited by constant frequency (CF) bats and frequency modulated (FM) bats alike. We hypothesize that using a low level yet robust cue for obstacle avoidance allows bats to comply with the hard real-time constraints of this basic behaviour.

Echolocating bats can fly through complex environments in complete darkness. Swift and apparently effortless obstacle avoidance is the most fundamental function supported by biosonar. Despite this, we still do not know which acoustic cues, from among the many possible cues, bats actually exploit while avoiding obstacles. In this paper, we show using spatial simulations (2D and 3D) that the Interaural Intensity Difference (IID) and travel time of the first millisecond of the echo train in combination with alternating ear positions provide robust and reliable cues for obstacle avoidance. Simulating the echoes received by a flying bat, we show that simple phonotaxis can steer a bat clear from obstacles without performing 3D reconstruction of the layout of the scene. As such, this paper presents the first computationally explicit explanation for obstacle avoidance in realistic and complex 3D environments. We hypothesize that using low level yet robust cues for obstacle avoidance allows bats to comply with the hard real-time constraints of this basic behaviour.

Neural Correlates of Human Echolocation of Path Direction During Walking

Echolocation can be used by blind and sighted humans to navigate their environment. The current study investigated the neural activity underlying processing of path direction during walking. Brain activity was measured with fMRI in three blind echolocation experts, and three blind and three sighted novices. During scanning, participants listened to binaural recordings that had been made prior to scanning while echolocation experts had echolocated during walking along a corridor which could continue to the left, right, or straight ahead. Participants also listened to control sounds that contained ambient sounds and clicks, but no echoes. The task was to decide if the corridor in the recording continued to the left, right, or straight ahead, or if they were listening to a control sound. All participants successfully dissociated echo from no echo sounds, however, echolocation experts were superior at direction detection. We found brain activations associated with processing of path direction (contrast: echo vs. no echo) in superior parietal lobule (SPL) and inferior frontal cortex in each group. In sighted novices, additional activation occurred in the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) and middle and superior frontal areas. Within the framework of the dorso-dorsal and ventro-dorsal pathway proposed by Rizzolatti and Matelli (2003), our results suggest that blind participants may automatically assign directional meaning to the echoes, while sighted participants may apply more conscious, high-level spatial processes. High similarity of SPL and IFC activations across all three groups, in combination with previous research, also suggest that all participants recruited a multimodal spatial processing system for action (here: locomotion).

Bidirectional Echolocation in the Bat Barbastella barbastellus: Different Signals of Low Source Level Are Emitted Upward through the Nose and Downward through the Mouth

The Barbastelle bat (Barbastella barbastellus) preys almost exclusively on tympanate moths. While foraging, this species alternates between two different signal types. We investigated whether these signals differ in emission direction or source level (SL) as assumed from earlier single microphone recordings. We used two different settings of a 16-microphone array to determine SL and sonar beam direction at various locations in the field. Both types of search signals had low SLs (81 and 82 dB SPL rms re 1 m) as compared to other aerial-hawking bats. These two signal types were emitted in different directions; type 1 signals were directed downward and type 2 signals upward. The angle between beam directions was approximately 70°. Barbastelle bats are able to emit signals through both the mouth and the nostrils. As mouth and nostrils are roughly perpendicular to each other, we conclude that type 1 signals are emitted through the mouth while type 2 signals and approach signals are emitted through the nose. We hypothesize that the “stealth” echolocation system of B. barbastellus is bifunctional. The more upward directed nose signals may be mainly used for search and localization of prey. Their low SL prevents an early detection by eared moths but comes at the expense of a strongly reduced detection range for the environment below the bat. The more downward directed mouth signals may have evolved to compensate for this disadvantage and may be mainly used for spatial orientation. We suggest that the possibly bifunctional echolocation system of B. barbastellus has been adapted to the selective foraging of eared moths and is an excellent example of a sophisticated sensory arms race between predator and prey.

Object localization using a biosonar beam: how opening your mouth improves localization

Determining the location of a sound source is crucial for survival. Both predators and prey usually produce sound while moving, revealing valuable information about their presence and location. Animals have thus evolved morphological and neural adaptations allowing precise sound localization. Mammals rely on the temporal and amplitude differences between the sound signals arriving at their two ears, as well as on the spectral cues available in the signal arriving at a single ear to localize a sound source. Most mammals rely on passive hearing and are thus limited by the acoustic characteristics of the emitted sound. Echolocating bats emit sound to perceive their environment. They can, therefore, affect the frequency spectrum of the echoes they must localize. The biosonar sound beam of a bat is directional, spreading different frequencies into different directions. Here, we analyse mathematically the spatial information that is provided by the beam and could be used to improve sound localization. We hypothesize how bats could improve sound localization by altering their echolocation signal design or by increasing their mouth gape (the size of the sound emitter) as they, indeed, do in nature. Finally, we also reveal a trade-off according to which increasing the echolocation signal's frequency improves the accuracy of sound localization but might result in undesired large localization errors under low signal-to-noise ratio conditions.

Acoustic behavior of melon-headed whales varies on a diel cycle

Many terrestrial and marine species have a diel activity pattern, and their acoustic signaling follows their current behavioral state. Whistles and echolocation clicks on long-term recordings produced by melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra) at Palmyra Atoll indicated that these signals were used selectively during different phases of the day, strengthening the idea of nighttime foraging and daytime resting with afternoon socializing for this species. Spectral features of their echolocation clicks changed from day to night, shifting the median center frequency up. Additionally, click received levels increased with increasing ambient noise during both day and night. Ambient noise over a wide frequency band was on average higher at night. The diel adjustment of click features might be a reaction to acoustic masking caused by these nighttime sounds. Similar adaptations have been documented for numerous taxa in response to noise. Or it could be, unrelated, an increase in biosonar source levels and with it a shift in center frequency to enhance detection distances during foraging at night. Call modifications in intensity, directionality, frequency, and duration according to echolocation task are well established for bats. This finding indicates that melon-headed whales have flexibility in their acoustic behavior, and they collectively and repeatedly adapt their signals from day- to nighttime circumstances.

On-board recordings reveal no jamming avoidance in wild bats

Animals often deal with situations in which vast sensory input is received simultaneously. They therefore must possess sophisticated mechanisms to select important input and ignore the rest. In bat echolocation, this problem is at its extreme. Echolocating bats emit sound signals and analyse the returning echoes to sense their environment. Bats from the same species use signals with similar frequencies. Nearby bats therefore face the difficulty of distinguishing their own echoes from the signals of other bats, a problem often referred to as jamming. Because bats commonly fly in large groups, jamming might simultaneously occur from numerous directions and at many frequencies. Jamming is a special case of the general phenomenon of sensory segregation. Another well-known example is the human problem of following conversation within a crowd. In both situations, a flood of auditory incoming signals must be parsed into important versus irrelevant information. Here, we present a novel method, fitting wild bats with a miniature microphone, which allows studying jamming from the bat's 'point of view'. Previous studies suggested that bats deal with jamming by shifting their echolocation frequency. On-board recordings suggest otherwise. Bats shifted their frequencies, but they did so because they were responding to the conspecifics as though they were nearby objects rather than avoiding being jammed by them. We show how bats could use alternative measures to deal with jamming instead of shifting their frequency. Despite its intuitive appeal, a spectral jamming avoidance response might not be the prime mechanism to avoid sensory interference from conspecifics.

Barriers and benefits: implications of artificial night-lighting for the distribution of common bats in Britain and Ireland

Artificial lighting is a particular problem for animals active at night. Approximately 69% of mammal species are nocturnal, and one-third of these are bats. Due to their extensive movements-both on a nightly basis to exploit ephemeral food supplies, and during migration between roosts-bats have an unusually high probability of encountering artificial light in the landscape. This paper reviews the impacts of lighting on bats and their prey, exploring the direct and indirect consequences of lighting intensity and spectral composition. In addition, new data from large-scale surveys involving more than 265 000 bat calls at more than 600 locations in two countries are presented, showing that prevalent street-lighting types are not generally linked with increased activity of common and widespread bat species. Such bats, which are important to ecosystem function, are generally considered 'light-attracted' and likely to benefit from the insect congregations that form at lights. Leisler's bat (Nyctalus leisleri) may be an exception, being more frequent in lit than dark transects. For common pipistrelle bats (Pipistrellus pipistrellus), lighting is negatively associated with their distribution on a landscape scale, but there may be local increases in habitats with good tree cover. Research is now needed on the impacts of sky glow and glare for bat navigation, and to explore the implications of lighting for habitat matrix permeability.

Spatial cognition in bats and rats: from sensory acquisition to multiscale maps and navigation

Spatial orientation and navigation rely on the acquisition of several types of sensory information. This information is then transformed into a neural code for space in the hippocampal formation through the activity of place cells, grid cells and head-direction cells. These spatial representations, in turn, are thought to guide long-range navigation. But how the representations encoded by these different cell types are integrated in the brain to form a neural 'map and compass' is largely unknown. Here, we discuss this problem in the context of spatial navigation by bats and rats. We review the experimental findings and theoretical models that provide insight into the mechanisms that link sensory systems to spatial representations and to large-scale natural navigation.

Eigenbeam analysis of the diversity in bat biosonar beampatterns

A quantitative analysis of the interspecific variability in bat biosonar beampatterns has been carried out on 267 numerical predictions of emission and reception beampatterns from 98 different species. Since these beampatterns did not share a common orientation, an alignment was necessary to analyze the variability in the shape of the patterns. To achieve this, beampatterns were aligned using a pairwise optimization framework based on a rotation-dependent cost function. The sum of the p-norms between beam-gain functions across frequency served as a figure of merit. For a representative subset of the data, it was found that all pairwise beampattern alignments resulted in a unique global minimum. This minimum was found to be contained in a subset of all possible beampattern rotations that could be predicted by the overall beam orientation. Following alignment, the beampatterns were decomposed into principal components. The average beampattern consisted of a symmetric, positionally static single lobe that narrows and became progressively asymmetric with increasing frequency. The first three "eigenbeams" controlled the beam width of the beampattern across frequency while higher rank eigenbeams account for symmetry and lobe motion. Reception and emission beampatterns could be distinguished (85% correct classification) based on the first 14 eigenbeams.

Variation in harbour porpoise activity in response to seismic survey noise

Animals exposed to anthropogenic disturbance make trade-offs between perceived risk and the cost of leaving disturbed areas. Impact assessments tend to focus on overt behavioural responses leading to displacement, but trade-offs may also impact individual energy budgets through reduced foraging performance. Previous studies found no evidence for broad-scale displacement of harbour porpoises exposed to impulse noise from a 10 day two-dimensional seismic survey. Here, we used an array of passive acoustic loggers coupled with calibrated noise measurements to test whether the seismic survey influenced the activity patterns of porpoises remaining in the area. We showed that the probability of recording a buzz declined by 15% in the ensonified area and was positively related to distance from the source vessel. We also estimated received levels at the hydrophones and characterized the noise response curve. Our results demonstrate how environmental impact assessments can be developed to assess more subtle effects of noise disturbance on activity patterns and foraging efficiency.

Rapid shifts of sonar attention by Pipistrellus abramus during natural hunting for multiple prey

Flight paths of echolocating Japanese house bats, Pipistrellus abramus, were tracked during insect hunting in a natural setting using a 32-microphone array. The array surrounded the foraging area, locating each bat, and determined the directional aim of the sonar beam. Successive interceptions, indicated by feeding "buzzes" and post-buzz pauses, occurred singly at intervals from over 20 s down to multiple interceptions at 2-3 s intervals. Bats flew on looping, curved paths. Turning radius tightened as rate of interceptions increased, keeping the bat in a smaller area of higher capture density. Broadcast beams shifted direction during search, often alternating between the direction of flight and another direction where, moments later, the next interception would occur. Broadcasts also shifted direction between the current target and the next target. Bats time-share biosonar attention between objects by alternating acoustic gaze. During search, most interpulse intervals (IPIs) were 70-120 ms, but bats interspersed long IPIs up to 200 ms when the rate of interception was low and flight paths followed broad curves. Mathematical modeling of search paths demonstrated that circular flight-paths with occasional long IPIs would be more effective for target search than either random, correlated random, or linear flights.

Has a fully three-dimensional space map never evolved in any species? A comparative imperative for studies of spatial cognition

I propose that it is premature to assert that a fully three-dimensional map has never evolved in any species, as data are lacking to show that space coding in all animals is the same. Instead, I hypothesize that three-dimensional representation is tied to an animal's mode of locomotion through space. Testing this hypothesis requires a large body of comparative data.

Hematologic profile of hematophagous Desmodus rotundus bats before and after experimental infection with rabies virus

INTRODUCTION

Hematophagous Desmodus rotundus bats play an important role in the rabies lifecycle. This study describes the hematological profile of these bats before and after experimental infection with rabies virus.

METHODS

Cells counts were performed in a Neubauer chamber.

RESULTS

The average values of erythrocytes and leucocytes counts in blood before experimental infections were 9.97 × 10(6)mm3 and 4.80 × 10(3)mm3, respectively. Neutrophils represented 69.9% of white blood cells and the lymphocytes represented 26.9%. Following the experimental infections, the average numbers of erythrocytes and leucocytes was 9.43 × 106mm3 and 3.98 × 10(3)mm3, respectively. Neutrophils represented 40% of white blood cells and the lymphocytes represented 59%.

CONCLUSIONS

The hematological profile given in this study can serve as reference values for D. rotundus bats.

Female mate choice can drive the evolution of high frequency echolocation in bats: a case study with Rhinolophus mehelyi

Animals employ an array of signals (i.e. visual, acoustic, olfactory) for communication. Natural selection favours signals, receptors, and signalling behaviour that optimise the received signal relative to background noise. When the signal is used for more than one function, antagonisms amongst the different signalling functions may constrain the optimisation of the signal for any one function. Sexual selection through mate choice can strongly modify the effects of natural selection on signalling systems ultimately causing maladaptive signals to evolve. Echolocating bats represent a fascinating group in which to study the evolution of signalling systems as unlike bird songs or frog calls, echolocation has a dual role in foraging and communication. The function of bat echolocation is to generate echoes that the calling bat uses for orientation and food detection with call characteristics being directly related to the exploitation of particular ecological niches. Therefore, it is commonly assumed that echolocation has been shaped by ecology via natural selection. Here we demonstrate for the first time using a novel combined behavioural, ecological and genetic approach that in a bat species, Rhinolophus mehelyi: (1) echolocation peak frequency is an honest signal of body size; (2) females preferentially select males with high frequency calls during the mating season; (3) high frequency males sire more off-spring, providing evidence that echolocation calls may play a role in female mate choice. Our data refute the sole role of ecology in the evolution of echolocation and highlight the antagonistic interplay between natural and sexual selection in shaping acoustic signals.

Vocal production learning in bats

Echolocating bats exhibit excellent control over their acoustic signals emitted and skillfully interpret the returning echoes, allowing orientation and foraging in complete darkness. Echolocation may be a preadaptation for sophisticated vocal communication with conspecifics and, ultimately, vocal learning processes. In humans, the importance of auditory input for correct speech acquisition is obvious, whereas vocal production learning is rare and patchily distributed among non-human mammals. Bats comprise one of the few mammalian taxa capable of vocal production learning, with current behavioral evidence for three species belonging to two families; more evidence will probably forthcoming. The taxon's speciose nature makes bats well suited for phylogenetically controlled, comparative studies on proximate and ultimate mechanisms of mammalian vocal production learning.

Niche-specific cognitive strategies: object memory interferes with spatial memory in the predatory bat Myotis nattereri

Related species with different diets are predicted to rely on different cognitive strategies: those best suited for locating available and appropriate foods. Here we tested two predictions of the niche-specific cognitive strategies hypothesis in bats, which suggests that predatory species should rely more on object memory than on spatial memory for finding food and that the opposite is true of frugivorous and nectivorous species. Specifically, we predicted that: (1) predatory bats would readily learn to associate shapes with palatable prey and (2) once bats had made such associations, these would interfere with their subsequent learning of a spatial memory task. We trained free-flying Myotis nattereri to approach palatable and unpalatable insect prey suspended below polystyrene objects. Experimentally naïve bats learned to associate different objects with palatable and unpalatable prey but performed no better than chance in a subsequent spatial memory experiment. Because experimental sequence was predicted to be of consequence, we introduced a second group of bats first to the spatial memory experiment. These bats learned to associate prey position with palatability. Control trials indicated that bats made their decisions based on information acquired through echolocation. Previous studies have shown that bat species that eat mainly nectar and fruit rely heavily on spatial memory, reflecting the relative consistency of distribution of fruit and nectar compared with insects. Our results support the niche-specific cognitive strategies hypothesis and suggest that for gleaning and clutter-resistant aerial hawking bats, learning to associate shape with food interferes with subsequent spatial memory learning.

Parallel sites implicate functional convergence of the hearing gene prestin among echolocating mammals

Echolocation is a sensory system whereby certain mammals navigate and forage using sound waves, usually in environments where visibility is limited. Curiously, echolocation has evolved independently in bats and whales, which occupy entirely different environments. Based on this phenotypic convergence, recent studies identified several echolocation-related genes with parallel sites at the protein sequence level among different echolocating mammals, and among these, prestin seems the most promising. Although previous studies analyzed the evolutionary mechanism of prestin, the functional roles of the parallel sites in the evolution of mammalian echolocation are not clear. By functional assays, we show that a key parameter of prestin function, 1/α, is increased in all echolocating mammals and that the N7T parallel substitution accounted for this functional convergence. Moreover, another parameter, V1/2, was shifted toward the depolarization direction in a toothed whale, the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and a constant-frequency (CF) bat, the Stoliczka's trident bat (Aselliscus stoliczkanus). The parallel site of I384T between toothed whales and CF bats was responsible for this functional convergence. Furthermore, the two parameters (1/α and V1/2) were correlated with mammalian high-frequency hearing, suggesting that the convergent changes of the prestin function in echolocating mammals may play important roles in mammalian echolocation. To our knowledge, these findings present the functional patterns of echolocation-related genes in echolocating mammals for the first time and rigorously demonstrate adaptive parallel evolution at the protein sequence level, paving the way to insights into the molecular mechanism underlying mammalian echolocation.

Spatial release from simultaneous echo masking in bat sonar

Big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) use biosonar to navigate and locate objects in their surroundings. During natural foraging, they often encounter echoes returned by a target of interest located to the front while other, often stronger, clutter echoes are returned from objects, such as vegetation, located to the sides or above. Nevertheless, bats behave as if they do not suffer interference from this clutter. Using a two-choice delay discrimination procedure, bats were tested for the masking effectiveness of clutter echoes on target echoes when the target echoes were delivered from the bat's front while clutter echoes were delivered from 90° overhead, a direction of lowpass filtering by the external ears. When clutter echoes are presented from the front at the same delay as target echoes, detection performance declines and clutter masking occurs. When the clutter echoes are presented at the same delay but from overhead, discrimination performance is unaffected and no masking occurs. Thus there is masking release for simultaneous off-axis lowpass clutter compared to masking by simultaneous clutter from the front. The bat's performance for simultaneous target and clutter echoes indicates a new role for the mechanism that separates overlapping echoes by decomposing the bat's auditory time-frequency representation.

Driving factors for the evolution of species-specific echolocation call design in new world free-tailed bats (molossidae)

Phylogeny, ecology, and sensorial constraints are thought to be the most important factors influencing echolocation call design in bats. The Molossidae is a diverse bat family with a majority of species restricted to tropical and subtropical regions. Most molossids are specialized to forage for insects in open space, and thus share similar navigational challenges. We use an unprecedented dataset on the echolocation calls of 8 genera and 18 species of New World molossids to explore how habitat, phylogenetic relatedness, body mass, and prey perception contribute to echolocation call design. Our results confirm that, with the exception of the genus Molossops, echolocation calls of these bats show a typical design for open space foraging. Two lines of evidence point to echolocation call structure of molossids reflecting phylogenetic relatedness. First, such structure is significantly more similar within than among genera. Second, except for allometric scaling, such structure is nearly the same in congeneric species. Despite contrasting body masses, 12 of 18 species call within a relatively narrow frequency range of 20 to 35 kHz, a finding that we explain by using a modeling approach whose results suggest this frequency range to be an adaptation optimizing prey perception in open space. To conclude, we argue that the high variability in echolocation call design of molossids is an advanced evolutionary trait allowing the flexible adjustment of echolocation systems to various sensorial challenges, while conserving sender identity for social communication. Unraveling evolutionary drivers for echolocation call design in bats has so far been hampered by the lack of adequate model organisms sharing a phylogenetic origin and facing similar sensorial challenges. We thus believe that knowledge of the echolocation call diversity of New World molossid bats may prove to be landmark to understand the evolution and functionality of species-specific signal design in bats.

Trophic niche differentiation and microhabitat utilization revealed by stable isotope analyses in a dry-forest bat assemblage at Ankarana, northern Madagascar

Bats are important components in tropical mammal assemblages. Unravelling the mechanisms allowing multiple syntopic bat species to coexist can provide insights into community ecology. However, dietary information on component species of these assemblages is often difficult to obtain. Here we measured stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in hair samples clipped from the backs of 94 specimens to indirectly examine whether trophic niche differentiation and microhabitat segregation explain the coexistence of 16 bat species at Ankarana, northern Madagascar. The assemblage ranged over 4.4‰ in δ15N and was structured into two trophic levels with phytophagous Pteropodidae as primary consumers (c. 3‰ enriched over plants) and different insectivorous bats as secondary consumers (c. 4‰ enriched over primary consumers). Bat species utilizing different microhabitats formed distinct isotopic clusters (metric analyses of δ13C–δ15N bi-plots), but taxa foraging in the same microhabitat did not show more pronounced trophic differentiation than those occupying different microhabitats. As revealed by multivariate analyses, no discernible feeding competition was found in the local assemblage amongst congeneric species as compared with non-congeners. In contrast to ecological niche theory, but in accordance with studies on New and Old World bat assemblages, competitive interactions appear to be relaxed at Ankarana and not a prevailing structuring force.

Global warming alters sound transmission: differential impact on the prey detection ability of echolocating bats

Climate change impacts the biogeography and phenology of plants and animals, yet the underlying mechanisms are little known. Here, we present a functional link between rising temperature and the prey detection ability of echolocating bats. The maximum distance for echo-based prey detection is physically determined by sound attenuation. Attenuation is more pronounced for high-frequency sound, such as echolocation, and is a nonlinear function of both call frequency and ambient temperature. Hence, the prey detection ability, and thus possibly the foraging efficiency, of echolocating bats and susceptible to rising temperatures through climate change. Using present-day climate data and projected temperature rises, we modelled this effect for the entire range of bat call frequencies and climate zones around the globe. We show that depending on call frequency, the prey detection volume of bats will either decrease or increase: species calling above a crossover frequency will lose and species emitting lower frequencies will gain prey detection volume, with crossover frequency and magnitude depending on the local climatic conditions. Within local species assemblages, this may cause a change in community composition. Global warming can thus directly affect the prey detection ability of individual bats and indirectly their interspecific interactions with competitors and prey.

Spatial variation in the echolocation calls of the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus)

We studied spatial variation in echolocation call structure of the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus (LeConte, 1831)) by analysing calls recorded from free-flying individuals at 1 site in Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, 1 site in Chautaqua, New York, and 20 sites along the Hudson River, New York. We controlled for factors that are often thought to lead to interspecific variation in echolocation calls (habitat, ontogeny, presence of conspecifics, recording techniques, ambient conditions), which allowed us to focus on the effect of spatial scale on call structure. As predicted, we found that at small scales (up to 1 km), there was significant geographic variation, likely owing to roost-specific signatures and group foraging activities. At intermediate scales (2–500 km), we found no differences in call structure, suggesting that populations within this area are part of a single hibernating and breeding population. Finally, echolocation call structure differed at the continental scale (>1000 km) likely because of little genetic exchange among sampled populations. Our results highlight the importance of considering the magnitude of spatial scale when examining variation in echolocation call structure.

Optimizing sampling design to deal with mist-net avoidance in Amazonian birds and bats

Mist netting is a widely used technique to sample bird and bat assemblages. However, captures often decline with time because animals learn and avoid the locations of nets. This avoidance or net shyness can substantially decrease sampling efficiency. We quantified the day-to-day decline in captures of Amazonian birds and bats with mist nets set at the same location for four consecutive days. We also evaluated how net avoidance influences the efficiency of surveys under different logistic scenarios using re-sampling techniques. Net avoidance caused substantial declines in bird and bat captures, although more accentuated in the latter. Most of the decline occurred between the first and second days of netting: 28% in birds and 47% in bats. Captures of commoner species were more affected. The numbers of species detected also declined. Moving nets daily to minimize the avoidance effect increased captures by 30% in birds and 70% in bats. However, moving the location of nets may cause a reduction in netting time and captures. When moving the nets caused the loss of one netting day it was no longer advantageous to move the nets frequently. In bird surveys that could even decrease the number of individuals captured and species detected. Net avoidance can greatly affect sampling efficiency but adjustments in survey design can minimize this. Whenever nets can be moved without losing netting time and the objective is to capture many individuals, they should be moved daily. If the main objective is to survey species present then nets should still be moved for bats, but not for birds. However, if relocating nets causes a significant loss of netting time, moving them to reduce effects of shyness will not improve sampling efficiency in either group. Overall, our findings can improve the design of mist netting sampling strategies in other tropical areas.

Species-specific beaked whale echolocation signals

Beaked whale echolocation signals are mostly frequency-modulated (FM) upsweep pulses and appear to be species specific. Evolutionary processes of niche separation may have driven differentiation of beaked whale signals used for spatial orientation and foraging. FM pulses of eight species of beaked whales were identified, as well as five distinct pulse types of unknown species, but presumed to be from beaked whales. Current evidence suggests these five distinct but unidentified FM pulse types are also species-specific and are each produced by a separate species. There may be a relationship between adult body length and center frequency with smaller whales producing higher frequency signals. This could be due to anatomical and physiological restraints or it could be an evolutionary adaption for detection of smaller prey for smaller whales with higher resolution using higher frequencies. The disadvantage of higher frequencies is a shorter detection range. Whales echolocating with the highest frequencies, or broadband, likely lower source level signals also use a higher repetition rate, which might compensate for the shorter detection range. Habitat modeling with acoustic detections should give further insights into how niches and prey may have shaped species-specific FM pulse types.

Independent losses of visual perception genes Gja10 and Rbp3 in echolocating bats (Order: Chiroptera)

A trade-off between the sensory modalities of vision and hearing is likely to have occurred in echolocating bats as the sophisticated mechanism of laryngeal echolocation requires considerable neural processing and has reduced the reliance of echolocating bats on vision for perceiving the environment. If such a trade-off exists, it is reasonable to hypothesize that some genes involved in visual function may have undergone relaxed selection or even functional loss in echolocating bats. The Gap junction protein, alpha 10 (Gja10, encoded by Gja10 gene) is expressed abundantly in mammal retinal horizontal cells and plays an important role in horizontal cell coupling. The interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (Irbp, encoded by the Rbp3 gene) is mainly expressed in interphotoreceptor matrix and is known to be critical for normal functioning of the visual cycle. We sequenced Gja10 and Rbp3 genes in a taxonomically wide range of bats with divergent auditory characteristics (35 and 18 species for Gja10 and Rbp3, respectively). Both genes have became pseudogenes in species from the families Hipposideridae and Rhinolophidae that emit constant frequency echolocation calls with Doppler shift compensation at high-duty-cycles (the most sophisticated form of biosonar known), and in some bat species that emit echolocation calls at low-duty-cycles. Our study thus provides further evidence for the hypothesis that a trade-off occurs at the genetic level between vision and echolocation in bats.

Structure and possible functions of constant-frequency calls in Ariopsis seemanni (Osteichthyes, Ariidae)

In the 1970s, Tavolga conducted a series of experiments in which he found behavioral evidence that the vocalizations of the catfish species Ariopsis felis may play a role in a coarse form of echolocation. Based on his findings, he postulated a similar function for the calls of closely related catfish species. Here, we describe the physical characteristics of the predominant call-type of Ariopsis seemanni. In two behavioral experiments, we further explore whether A. seemanni uses these calls for acoustic obstacle detection by testing the hypothesis that the call-emission rate of individual fish should increase when subjects are confronted with novel objects, as it is known from other vertebrate species that use pulse-type signals to actively probe the environment. Audio-video monitoring of the fish under different obstacle conditions did not reveal a systematic increase in the number of emitted calls in the presence of novel objects or in dependence on the proximity between individual fish and different objects. These negative findings in combination with our current understanding of directional hearing in fishes (which is a prerequisite for acoustic obstacle detection) make it highly unlikely that A. seemanni uses its calls for acoustic obstacle detection. We argue that the calls are more likely to play a role in intra- or interspecific communication (e.g. in school formation or predator deterrence) and present results from a preliminary Y-maze experiment that are indicative for a positive phonotaxis of A. seemanni towards the calls of conspecifics.

Foraging ecology predicts learning performance in insectivorous bats

Bats are unusual among mammals in showing great ecological diversity even among closely related species and are thus well suited for studies of adaptation to the ecological background. Here we investigate whether behavioral flexibility and simple- and complex-rule learning performance can be predicted by foraging ecology. We predict faster learning and higher flexibility in animals hunting in more complex, variable environments than in animals hunting in more simple, stable environments. To test this hypothesis, we studied three closely related insectivorous European bat species of the genus Myotis that belong to three different functional groups based on foraging habitats: M. capaccinii, an open water forager, M. myotis, a passive listening gleaner, and M. emarginatus, a clutter specialist. We predicted that M. capaccinii would show the least flexibility and slowest learning reflecting its relatively unstructured foraging habitat and the stereotypy of its natural foraging behavior, while the other two species would show greater flexibility and more rapid learning reflecting the complexity of their natural foraging tasks. We used a purposefully unnatural and thus species-fair crawling maze to test simple- and complex-rule learning, flexibility and re-learning performance. We found that M. capaccinii learned a simple rule as fast as the other species, but was slower in complex rule learning and was less flexible in response to changes in reward location. We found no differences in re-learning ability among species. Our results corroborate the hypothesis that animals' cognitive skills reflect the demands of their ecological niche.