Hierarchical Self-Assembly of Discrete Organoplatinum(II) Metallacycles with Polysaccharide via Electrostatic Interactions and Their Application for Heparin Detection

Emissive H-Aggregates of an Ultrafast Molecular Rotor: A Promising Platform for Sensing Heparin

Constructing "turn on" fluorescent probes for heparin, a most widely used anticoagulant in clinics, from commercially available materials is of great importance, but remains challenging. Here, we report the formation of a rarely observed emissive H-aggregate of an ultrafast molecular rotor dye, Thioflavin-T, in the presence of heparin, which provides an excellent platform for simple, economic and rapid fluorescence turn-on sensing of heparin. Generally, H-aggregates are considered as serious problem in the field of biomolecular sensing, owing to their poorly emissive nature resulting from excitonic interaction. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report, where contrastingly, the turn-on emission from the H-aggregates has been utilized in the biomolecule sensing scheme, and enables a very efficient and selective detection of a vital biomolecule and a drug with its extensive medical applications, i.e., heparin. Our sensor system offers several advantages including, emission in the biologically advantageous red-region, dual sensing, i.e., both by fluorimetry and colorimetry, and most importantly constructed from in-expensive commercially available dye molecule, which is expected to impart a large impact on the sensing field of heparin. Our system displays good performance in complex biological media of serum samples. The novel Thioflavin-T aggregate emission could be also used to probe the interaction of heparin with its only clinically approved antidote, Protamine.

Photophysical Properties of Organoplatinum(II) Compounds and Derived Self-Assembled Metallacycles and Metallacages: Fluorescence and its Applications

Over the past couple of decades, coordination-driven self-assembly has evolved as a broad multidisciplinary domain that not only covers the syntheses of aesthetically pleasing supramolecular architectures but also emerges as a method to form new optical materials, chemical sensors, theranostic agents, and compounds with light-harvesting and emissive properties. The majority of these applications depend upon investigations that reveal the photophysical nature and electronic structure of supramolecular coordination complexes (SCCs), including two-dimensional (2D) metallacycles and three-dimensional (3D) metallacages. As such, well-defined absorption and emission spectra are important for a given SCC to be used for sensing, bioimaging, and other applications with molecular fluorescence being an important component. In this Account, we summarize the photophysical properties of some bis(phosphine)organoplatinum(II) compounds and their discrete SCCs. The platinum(II) based organometallic precursors typically display spectral red-shifts and have low fluorescence quantum yields and short fluorescence lifetimes compared to their organic counterparts because the introduction of metal centers enhances both intersystem crossing (ISC) and intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) processes, which can compete with the fluorescence emissions. Likewise ligands with conjugation can also increase the ICT process; hence the corresponding organoplatinum(II) compounds undergo a further decrease in fluorescence lifetimes. The use of endohedral amine functionalized 120°-bispyridyl ligands can dramatically enhance the emission properties of the resultant organoplatinum(II) based SCCs. As such these SCCs display emissions in the visible region (ca. 400-500 nm) and are significantly red-shifted (ca. 80-100 nm) compared to the ligands. This key feature makes them suitable as supramolecular theranostic agents wherein these unique emission properties provide diagnostic spectroscopic handles and the organoplatinum(II) centers act as potential anticancer agents. Using steady state and time-resolved-spectroscopic techniques and quantum computations in concert, we have determined that the emissive properties stem from the ligand-centered transitions involving π-type molecular orbitals with modest contributions from the metal-based orbitals. The self-assembly and the photophysics of organoplatinum(II) ← 3-substituted pyridyl based SCCs are highly diverse. Subtle changes in the ligands' structures can form molecular congener systems with distinct conformational and photophysical properties. Furthermore, the heterometallic SCCs described herein possess rich photophysical properties and can be used for sensing based applications. Tetraphenylethylene (TPE) based SCCs display emissions in the aggregated state as well as in dilute solutions. This is a unique phenomenon that bridges the aggregation caused quenching (ACQ) and aggregation induced emission (AIE) effects. Moreover, a TPE based metallacage exhibits solvatoluminescence, including white light emission in THF solvent, and can act as a fluorescence-sensor for structurally similar ester compounds.

Immobilizing Tetraphenylethylene into Fused Metallacycles: Shape Effects on Fluorescence Emission

Herein, we describe the selective formation of a discrete fused metallarhomboid and a triangle by the careful control of the shape and stoichiometry of the building blocks. A tetraphenylethylene (TPE)-based tetrapyridyl donor is exploited as the bridging component, and coordination immobilization of the TPE unit within the rigid metallacyclic frameworks efficiently suppresses its intramolecular rotational motions. As a result, the fused polygons are innately emissive in dilute solution, representing an alternative to aggregation-induced emission. Upon further molecular aggregation, these metallacycles display aggregation-induced enhanced emissions. Interestingly, the fused rhomboid 7 shows a weaker fluorescence in dilute solutions relative to that of the fused triangle 8, while a reversal of emission intensities was observed in the aggregated state. These markedly different fluorescence efficiencies are likely due to the differences in the shapes of the fused polygons. Thus, this work shows that the properties of supramolecular coordination complexes can be affected by subtle structural factors, which can be controlled easily and precisely at the molecular level.

Fluorescent metallacycle-cored polymers via covalent linkage and their use as contrast agents for cell imaging

The covalent linkage of supramolecular monomers provides a powerful strategy for constructing dynamic polymeric materials whose properties can be readily tuned either by the selection of monomers or the choice of functional linkers. In this strategy, the stabilities of the supramolecular monomers and the reactions used to link the monomers are crucial because such monomers are normally dynamic and can disassemble during the linking process, leading to mixture of products. Therefore, although noncovalent interactions have been widely introduced into metallacycle structures to prepare metallosupramolecular polymers, metallacycle-cored polymers linked by covalent bonds have been rarely reported. Herein, we used the mild, highly efficient amidation reaction between alkylamine and N-hydroxysuccinimide-activated carboxylic acid to link the pendent amino functional groups of a rhomboidal metallacycle 10 to give metallacycle-cored polymers P1 and P2, which further yielded nanoparticles at low concentration and transformed into network structures as the concentration increased. Moreover, these polymers exhibited enhanced emission and showed better quantum yields than metallacycle 10 in methanol and methanol/water (1/9, vol/vol) due to the aggregation-induced emission properties of a tetraphenylethene-based pyridyl donor, which serves as a precursor for metallacycle 10. The fluorescence properties of these polymers were further used in cell imaging, and they showed a significant enrichment in lung cells after i.v. injection. Considering the anticancer activity of rhomboidal Pt(II) metallacycles, this type of fluorescent metallacycle-cored polymers can have potential applications toward lung cancer treatment.

Modulating luminescence of Tb(3+) with biomolecules for sensing heparin and its contaminant OSCS

The detection of heparin (Hep) and its contaminant oversulfated chondroitin sulfate (OSCS) is of great importance in clinics but remains challenging. Here, we report a sensitive and selective time-resolved luminescence (TRL) biosensing system for Hep by modulating the photoluminescence of Tb(3+) with guanine-rich ssDNA and Hep-specific AG73 peptide (RKRLQVQLSIRT). With the developed system, Hep including both unfractionated Hep (UFH) and the low molecular weight Hep (LMWH) has been successfully detected with a satisfactory detection limit. Owing to the highly specific interaction between Hep and AG73 peptide, major interfering substances in Hep detection, such as Hep analogs of chondrotin sulfate (Chs) and hyaluronic acid (HA), did not interfere with Hep detection. The established TRL sensing system was then successfully used for monitoring Hep metabolism in living rats by microdialysis. Moreover, the proposed TRL sensing system was further applied to analyze OSCS contaminant in Hep with heparinases treatment by exploring the inhibition effects of OSCS on the activity of heparinases. As low as 0.002% of OSCS in Hep was identified.

Modulation of Intersystem Crossing Rate by Minor Ligand Modifications in Cyclometalated Platinum(II) Complexes

Photophysical properties of four new platinum(II) complexes comprising extended ppy (Hppy = 2-phenylpyridine) and thpy (Hthpy = 2-(2'-thienyl)pyridine) cyclometalated ligands and acetylacetonate (acac) are reported. Substitution of the benzene ring of Pt-ppy complexes 1 and 2 with a more electron-rich thiophene of Pt-thpy complexes 3 and 4 leads to narrowing of the HOMO-LUMO gap and thus to a red shift of the lowest energy absorption band and phosphorescence band, as expected for low-energy excited states of the intraligand/metal-to-ligand charge transfer character. However, in addition to these conventional spectral shifts, another, at first unexpected, substitution effect occurs. Pt-thpy complexes 3 and 4 are dual emissive showing fluorescence about 6000 cm(-1) (∼0.75 eV) higher in energy relative to the phosphorescence band, while for Pt-ppy complexes 1 and 2 only phosphorescence is observed. For dual-emissive complexes 3 and 4, ISC rates kISC are estimated to be in order of 10(9)-10(10) s(-1), while kISC of Pt-ppy complexes 1 and 2 is much faster amounting to 10(12) s(-1) or more. The relative intensities of the fluorescence and phosphorescence signals of Pt-thpy complexes 3 and 4 depend on the excitation wavelength, showing that hyper-intersystem crossing (HISC) in these complexes is observably significant.

Hierarchical design of a polymeric nanovehicle for efficient tumor regression and imaging

Effective delivery of therapeutics to disease sites significantly contributes to drug efficacy, toxicity and clearance. Here we designed a hierarchical polymeric nanoparticle structure for anti-cancer chemotherapy delivery by utilizing state-of-the-art polymer chemistry and co-assembly techniques. This novel structural design combines the most desired merits for drug delivery in a single particle, including a long in vivo circulation time, inhibited non-specific cell uptake, enhanced tumor cell internalization, pH-controlled drug release and simultaneous imaging. This co-assembled nanoparticle showed exceptional stability in complex biological media. Benefiting from the synergistic effects of zwitterionic and multivalent galactose polymers, drug-loaded nanoparticles were selectively internalized by cancer cells rather than normal tissue cells. In addition, the pH-responsive core retained their cargo within their polymeric coating through hydrophobic interaction and released it under slightly acidic conditions. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies in mice showed minimal uptake of nanoparticles by the mononuclear phagocyte system and excellent blood circulation half-lives of 14.4 h. As a result, tumor growth was completely inhibited and no damage was observed for normal organ tissues. This newly developed drug nanovehicle has great potential in cancer therapy, and the hierarchical design principle should provide valuable information for the development of the next generation of drug delivery systems.

Our Expedition in Linear Neutral Platinum-Acetylide Complexes: The Preparation of Micro/nanostructure Materials, Complicated Topologies, and Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

During the past few decades, the construction of various kinds of platinum-acetylide complexes has attracted considerable attention, because of their wide applications in photovoltaic cells, non-linear optics, and bio-imaging materials. Among these platinum-acetylide complexes, the linear neutral platinum-acetylide complexes, due to their attractive properties, such as well-defined linear geometry, synthetic accessibility, and intriguing photoproperties, have emerged as a rising star in this field. In this personal account, we will discuss how we entered the field of linear neutral platinum-acetylide chemistry and what we found in this field. The preparation of various types of linear neutral platinum-acetylide complexes and their applications in the areas of micro/nanostructure materials, complicated topologies, and dye-sensitized solar cells will be summarized in this account.

Hierarchical Self-Assembly of Polyoxometalate-Based Hybrids Driven by Metal Coordination and Electrostatic Interactions: From Discrete Supramolecular Species to Dense Monodisperse Nanoparticles

The metal-driven self-assembly processes of a covalent polyoxometalate (POM)-based hybrid bearing remote terpyridine binding sites have been investigated. In a strongly dissociating solvent, a discrete metallomacrocycle, described as a molecular triangle, is formed and characterized by 2D diffusion NMR spectroscopy (DOSY), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and molecular modeling. In a less dissociating solvent, the primary supramolecular structure, combining negatively charged POMs and cationic metal linkers, further self-assemble through intermolecular electrostatic interactions in a reversible process. The resulting hierarchical assemblies are dense monodisperse nanoparticles composed of ca. 50 POMs that were characterized by SAXS and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This multiscale organized system directed by metal coordination and electrostatic interactions constitutes a promising step for the future design of POM self-assemblies with controllable structure-directing factors.

Supramolecular aggregates as sensory ensembles

Recent research progress in sensing based on induced supramolecular aggregation or disaggregation.

Supramolecular transformations within discrete coordination-driven supramolecular architectures

In this review, a comprehensive summary of supramolecular transformations within discrete coordination-driven supramolecular architectures, including helices, metallacycles, metallacages, etc., is presented.

Transformable nanostructures of cholesteryl-containing rhomboidal metallacycles through hierarchical self-assembly

Various interesting nanostructures such as flowers and tadpole shaped structures were successfully obtained from well-defined cholesteryl-containing rhomboidal metallacycles prepared by coordination-driven self-assembly.

Fluorescent nanoassemblies between tetraphenylethenes and sulfonatocalixarenes: a systematic study of calixarene-induced aggregation

We demonstrated a systematic study of calixarene-induced aggregation (CIA) that how and to what extent the structures of hosts and guests affect the assembly behavior by fluorescence spectroscopy.

Acid–base-controlled and dibenzylammonium-assisted aggregation induced emission enhancement of poly(tetraphenylethene) with an impressive blue shift

The non-covalent interaction between dibenzylammonium chloride and DB24C8 groups in poly(tetraphenylethene)-based conjugated polymers not only leads to an AIEE feature but also a significant blue shift from 515 to 483 nm.

Pyrene-based heparin sensors in competitive aqueous media – the role of self-assembled multivalency (SAMul)

Simple functionalised pyrene derivatives can achieve ratiometric sensing of heparin with the precise sensing mechanism depending on whether the sensor self-assembles into a multivalent ligand display.

A Suite of Tetraphenylethylene-Based Discrete Organoplatinum(II) Metallacycles: Controllable Structure and Stoichiometry, Aggregation-Induced Emission, and Nitroaromatics Sensing

Materials that organize multiple functionally active sites, especially those with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) properties, are of growing interest due to their widespread applications. Despite promising early architectures, the fabrication and preparation of multiple AIEgens, such as multiple tetraphenylethylene (multi-TPE) units, in a single entity remain a big challenge due to the tedious covalent synthetic procedures often accompanying such preparations. Coordination-driven self-assembly is an alternative synthetic methodology with the potential to deliver multi-TPE architectures with light-emitting characteristics. Herein, we report the preparation of a new family of discrete multi-TPE metallacycles in which two pendant phenyl rings of the TPE units remain unused as a structural element, representing novel AIE-active metal-organic materials based on supramolecular coordination complex platforms. These metallacycles possess relatively high molar absorption coefficients but weak fluorescent emission under dilute conditions because of the ability of the untethered phenyl rings to undergo torsional motion as a non-radiative decay pathway. Upon molecular aggregation, the multi-TPE metallacycles show AIE-activity with markedly enhanced quantum yields. Moreover, on account of their AIE characteristics in the condensed state and ability to interact with electron-deficient substrates, the photophysics of these metallacycles is sensitive to the presence of nitroaromatics, motivating their use as sensors. This work represents a unification of themes including molecular self-assembly, AIE, and fluorescence sensing and establishes structure-property-application relationships of multi-TPE scaffolds. The fundamental knowledge obtained from the current research facilitates progress in the field of metal-organic materials, metal-coordination-induced emission, and fluorescent sensing.