Magnetic/upconversion fluorescent NaGdF4:Yb,Er nanoparticle-based dual-modal molecular probes for imaging tiny tumors in vivo

Probing the nature of upconversion nanocrystals: instrumentation matters

Understanding upconversion nanocrystals: this review intends to summarize instrumental matters related to the characterization of upconversion nanocrystals from surface structures to intrinsic properties to ultimate challenges in nanocrystal analysis at single-particle levels.

The biosafety of lanthanide upconversion nanomaterials

The association between the chemo-physical properties of UCNPs and their biodistribution, excretion, and toxic effects is presented in this review.

Surface charge effect on the cellular interaction and cytotoxicity of NaYF4:Yb3+, Er3+@SiO2 nanoparticles

The positively charged UCNP@SiO₂-PEG-NH₂ exhibits higher cytotoxicity and cellular internalization efficiency than negatively charged UCNP@SiO₂-COOH and UCNP@SiO₂-PEG.

Facile synthesis of β-NaGdF4:Yb/Er@CaF2 nanoparticles with enhanced upconversion fluorescence and stability via a sequential growth process

β-NaGdF₄:Yb,Er@CaF₂ core–shell nanoparticles: β-NaGdF₄:Yb/Er nanoparticles coated with an ultrathin layer of CaF₂ have been achieved via a sequential growth process.

Upconversion NaYF4:Yb:Er nanoparticles co-doped with Gd3+ and Nd3+ for thermometry on the nanoscale

The upconversion luminescence properties of oleic acid capped NaYF₄:Gd³⁺:Yb³⁺:Er³⁺ upconversion nanoparticles (UCNP) with pure β crystal phase and Nd³⁺ ions as an additional sensitizer were studied in the temperature range of 288 K < T < 328 K.

Fabrication of photostable PEGylated polymer nanoparticles from AIE monomer and trimethylolpropane triacrylate

Fabrication of biocompatible and photostable PEGylated nanoparticles from AIE monomer and trimethylolpropane triacrylate for cellular imaging.

Stimuli responsive upconversion luminescence nanomaterials and films for various applications

This review highlights recent advances in upconversion luminescence materials in response to various stimuli for a broad spectrum of applications.

Efficient gene delivery and multimodal imaging by lanthanide-based upconversion nanoparticles

Nanoparticles have been explored as nonviral gene carriers for years because of the simplicity of surface modification and lack of immune response. Lanthanide-based upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) are becoming attractive candidates for biomedical applications in virtue of their unique optical properties and multimodality imaging ability. Here, we report a UCNPs-based structure with polyethylenimine coating for both efficient gene transfection and trimodality imaging. Cytotoxicity tests demonstrated that the nanoparticles exhibited significantly decreased cytotoxicity compared to polyethylenimine polymer. Further, in vitro studies revealed that the gene carriers are able to transfer the enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) plasmid DNA into Hela cells in higher transfection efficiency than PEI. Gene silencing was also examined by delivering bcl-2 siRNA into Hela cells, resulting in significant downregulation of target bcl-2 mRNA. More importantly, we demonstrated the feasibility of upconversion gene carriers to serve as effective contrast agents for MRI/CT/UCL trimodality imaging both in vitro and in vivo. The facile fabrication process, great biocompatibility, enhanced gene transfection efficiency, and great bioimaging ability can make it promising for application in gene therapy.

Restructuring and remodeling of NaREF4 nanocrystals by electron irradiation

NaREF4 nanocrystals are found to be highly manipulable by electron beam irradiation. With 200 kV electron beam irradiation, both 14.6 nm spherical NaGdF4 :Yb,Er nanoparticles and 44.7 nm × 34.1 nm ellipsoidal NaYF4 :Yb,Er nanorods form hollow structures and eventually convert to the corresponding REF3 upon prolonged irradiation. Furthermore, the NaYF4 nanorods fractured with irradiation with a 100 kV electron source are found to be subsequently self-healed when irradiated with a 200 kV source. The detailed experimental results, in combination with theoretical analysis, suggest that knock-on effects, specific lattice energy, and the inherently low surface energy of NaREF4 collectively contribute to the formation of the hollow structures. These mechanisms allow controlled engineering and manipulation of RE nanomaterials on the nanometer scale.

Are rare-earth nanoparticles suitable for in vivo applications?

Rare earth (RE) nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention due to their unique optical and magnetic properties associated with f-electrons. The recent accomplishments in RE nanoparticle synthesis have aroused great interest of scientists to further explore their biomedical applications. This Research News summarizes recent achievements in controlled synthesis of magnetic and luminescent RE nanoparticles, surface modification, and toxicity studies of RE nanomaterials, and highlights state-of-the-art in in vivo applications of RE nanoparticles.

Upconversion nanoparticles: a versatile solution to multiscale biological imaging

Lanthanide-doped photon upconverting nanomaterials are emerging as a new class of imaging contrast agents, providing numerous unprecedented possibilities in the realm of biomedical imaging. Because of their ability to convert long-wavelength near-infrared excitation radiation into shorter-wavelength emissions, these nanomaterials are able to produce assets of low imaging background, large anti-Stokes shift, as well as high optical penetration depth of light for deep tissue optical imaging or light-activated drug release and therapy. The aim of this review is to line up some issues associated with conventional fluorescent probes, and to address the recent advances of upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) as a solution to multiscale biological imaging applications.

Magnetically engineered semiconductor quantum dots as multimodal imaging probes

Light-emitting semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) combined with magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents within a single nanoparticle platform are considered to perform as multimodal imaging probes in biomedical research and related clinical applications. The principles of their rational design are outlined and contemporary synthetic strategies are reviewed (heterocrystalline growth; co-encapsulation or assembly of preformed QDs and magnetic nanoparticles; conjugation of magnetic chelates onto QDs; and doping of QDs with transition metal ions), identifying the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. Some of the opportunities and benefits that arise through in vivo imaging using these dual-mode probes are highlighted where tumor location and delineation is demonstrated in both MRI and fluorescence modality. Work on the toxicological assessments of QD/magnetic nanoparticles is also reviewed, along with progress in reducing their toxicological side effects for eventual clinical use. The review concludes with an outlook for future biomedical imaging and the identification of key challenges in reaching clinical applications.

Microwave-assisted polyol synthesis of gadolinium-doped green luminescent carbon dots as a bimodal nanoprobe

The development of multimodal nanoprobes is highly desired in medical imaging because it integrates the advantages of multiple imaging modes. In this study, the gadolinium-doped green luminescent carbon dots (Gd-CDs) were prepared by the simple one-step microwave-assisted polyol method. The obtained Gd-CDs emitted a unique green photoluminescence with a quantum yield of 5.4%. The Gd-CDs exhibited a low cytotoxicity and could optically label the C6 glioma cells. Meanwhile, the r1 relaxivity of Gd-CDs was measured to be 11.356 mM(-1) s(-1). This high r1 value together with the r2/r1 ratio close to 1 nominates Gd-CDs as an excellent T1 contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging. These Gd-CDs combining two complementary imaging modalities are therefore a promising bimodal nanoprobe in medical imaging for a better diagnosis.

Formulation design facilitates magnetic nanoparticle delivery to diseased cells and tissues

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) accumulate at disease sites with the aid of magnetic fields; biodegradable MNPs can be designed to facilitate drug delivery, influence disease diagnostics, facilitate tissue regeneration and permit protein purification. Because of their limited toxicity, MNPs are widely used in theranostics, simultaneously facilitating diagnostics and therapeutics. To realize therapeutic end points, iron oxide nanoparticle cores (5-30 nm) are encapsulated in a biocompatible polymer shell with drug cargos. Although limited, the toxic potential of MNPs parallels magnetite composition, along with shape, size and surface chemistry. Clearance is hastened by the reticuloendothelial system. To surmount translational barriers, the crystal structure, particle surface and magnetic properties of MNPs need to be optimized. With this in mind, we provide a comprehensive evaluation of advancements in MNP synthesis, functionalization and design, with an eye towards bench-to-bedside translation.

In situ 111In-doping for achieving biocompatible and non-leachable 111In-labeled Fe3O4 nanoparticles

The present study reports a new approach for synthesizing (111)In-radiolabeled biocompatible Fe3O4 nanoparticles. Radioactive (111)In is doped in situ into the lattice of Fe3O4 nanoparticles to achieve robust radiolabeling for accurately tracing PEGylated Fe3O4 particles in vivo.

Ultra-small fluorescent inorganic nanoparticles for bioimaging

The recent advances of ultra-small fluorescence inorganic nanoparticles including quantum dots, metal nanoclusters, carbon and graphene dots, up-conversion nanocrystals, and silicon nanoparticles have been comprehensively reviewed.

One-pot synthesis of PEG modified BaLuF5:Gd/Yb/Er nanoprobes for dual-modal in vivo upconversion luminescence and X-ray bioimaging

PEG-modified BaLuF₅:Gd/Yb/Er nanoparticles synthesized by a hydrothermal method for in vivo and in vitro bioimaging and X-ray bioimaging.

Synthesis of hollow rare-earth compound nanoparticles by a universal sacrificial template method

A universal sacrificial-template method to synthesize hollow structured materials with fluorescence properties.

Multifunctional nanoprobes based on upconverting lanthanide doped CaF2: towards biocompatible materials for biomedical imaging

Lanthanide doped CaF₂ nanoparticles are useful for in vivo optical and MR imaging and as nanothermometer probes, which do not induce pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion.

Salt-assisted rapid transformation of NaYF4:Yb3+,Er3+ nanocrystals from cubic to hexagonal

High-quality hexagonal nanocrystals (β-NaYF₄:Yb³⁺,Er³⁺) were prepared through one-pot mild solvothermal synthesis. The crystal structure of NaYF₄:Yb³⁺,Er³⁺ can be controlled by changing the molar ratio of phosphate to Ln³⁺ (Ln³⁺ represents the total amount of Y³⁺ and the doped rare earth elements such as Yb³⁺, Er³⁺).

Incorporation of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging function into NaYF4:Yb/Tm upconversion nanoparticles for in vivo trimodal bioimaging

Rational design and fabrication of multimodal imaging nanoprobes are of great significance for in vivo imaging. Here we report the fabrication of a multishell structured NaYF4:Yb/Tm@NaLuF4@NaYF4@NaGdF4 nanoprobe via a seed-mediated epitaxial growth strategy for upconversion luminescence (UCL), X-ray computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance (MR) trimodal imaging. Hexagonal phase NaYF4:Yb/Tm is used as the core to provide UCL, while the shell of NaLuF4 is epitaxially grown on the core not only to provide an optically inert layer for enhancing the UCL but also to serve as a contrast agent for CT. The outermost NaGdF4 shell is fabricated as a thin layer to give the high longitudinal relaxivity (r1) desired for MR imaging. The transition shell layer of NaYF4 not only provides an interface to facilitate the formation of NaGdF4 shell but also inhibits the energy transfer from inner upconversion activator to surface paramagnetic Gd(3+) ions. The fabricated multishell structured nanoprobe shows intense near-infrared UCL, high r1 value of 3.76 mM(-1) s(-1), and in vitro CT contrast effect. The multishell structured nanoprobe offers great potential for in vivo UCL/CT/MR trimodal imaging. Further covalent bonding of folic acid makes the multishell structured nanoprobe promising for in vivo targeted UCL imaging of tumor-bearing mice.