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Asselin-Labat ML, Lindeman GJ, Visvader JE. Mammary stem cells and their regulation by steroid hormones. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2011; 6:371-381. [PMID: 30754117 DOI: 10.1586/eem.11.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Sustained exposure to estrogen and progesterone is a well-established risk factor for breast cancer. These hormones play a central role in the female reproductive cycle, in which they control morphogenesis of the mammary gland during puberty, ovulatory cycles and pregnancy. Mouse mammary stem cells (MaSCs) have recently been discovered to be highly responsive to female hormones, despite lacking expression of the estrogen and progesterone receptors. The inhibition of MaSCs by hormone receptor antagonists further suggests that these cells contribute to oncogenesis. Identification of paracrine mediators of hormone signaling to MaSCs may lead to the development of novel inhibitors that drive MaSCs into a more quiescent state. In this context, inhibition of the receptor activator of NF-κB/receptor activator of NF-κB ligand signaling pathway has profound implications for the prevention of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Liesse Asselin-Labat
- a Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
- b Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Geoffrey J Lindeman
- a Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
- c Department of Medical Oncology, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, VIC 3050, Australia
- d Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jane E Visvader
- a Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
- b Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
- e
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202
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Maruyama R, Choudhury S, Kowalczyk A, Bessarabova M, Beresford-Smith B, Conway T, Kaspi A, Wu Z, Nikolskaya T, Merino VF, Lo PK, Liu XS, Nikolsky Y, Sukumar S, Haviv I, Polyak K. Epigenetic regulation of cell type-specific expression patterns in the human mammary epithelium. PLoS Genet 2011; 7:e1001369. [PMID: 21533021 PMCID: PMC3080862 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2010] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentiation is an epigenetic program that involves the gradual loss of pluripotency and acquisition of cell type–specific features. Understanding these processes requires genome-wide analysis of epigenetic and gene expression profiles, which have been challenging in primary tissue samples due to limited numbers of cells available. Here we describe the application of high-throughput sequencing technology for profiling histone and DNA methylation, as well as gene expression patterns of normal human mammary progenitor-enriched and luminal lineage-committed cells. We observed significant differences in histone H3 lysine 27 tri-methylation (H3K27me3) enrichment and DNA methylation of genes expressed in a cell type–specific manner, suggesting their regulation by epigenetic mechanisms and a dynamic interplay between the two processes that together define developmental potential. The technologies we developed and the epigenetically regulated genes we identified will accelerate the characterization of primary cell epigenomes and the dissection of human mammary epithelial lineage-commitment and luminal differentiation. Cellular differentiation is a precisely controlled and largely irreversible process orchestrated by cell type–specific epigenetic programs. Abnormalities in these programs lead to developmental disorders and play a key role in tumorigenesis. To better understand the regulation of human mammary epithelial cell type specification, we analyzed the gene expression, DNA methylation, and histone H3 K4 and K27 trimethylation profiles of progenitor-enriched and more differentiated luminal epithelial cell populations from multiple individuals. Network analysis of these profiles and their comparison to that of human embryonic stem cells identified key regulators of mammary epithelial and luminal lineage commitment. The list of genes epigenetically regulated in a cell type–specific manner provides a rich resource for the further analysis of human breast development and the role of epigenetic mechanisms in breast tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reo Maruyama
- Departments of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sibgat Choudhury
- Departments of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Adam Kowalczyk
- NICTA Victoria Research Laboratory, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Marina Bessarabova
- Thomson Reuters, Healthcare and Science, Encinitas, California, United States of America
| | - Bryan Beresford-Smith
- NICTA Victoria Research Laboratory, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas Conway
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Antony Kaspi
- Bioinformatics and System Integration, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Zhenhua Wu
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tatiana Nikolskaya
- Thomson Reuters, Healthcare and Science, Encinitas, California, United States of America
| | - Vanessa F. Merino
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Pang-Kuo Lo
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - X. Shirley Liu
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yuri Nikolsky
- Thomson Reuters, Healthcare and Science, Encinitas, California, United States of America
| | - Saraswati Sukumar
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Izhak Haviv
- Bioinformatics and System Integration, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Metastasis Research Lab, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kornelia Polyak
- Departments of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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203
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Valkenburg KC, Graveel CR, Zylstra-Diegel CR, Zhong Z, Williams BO. Wnt/β-catenin Signaling in Normal and Cancer Stem Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2011; 3:2050-79. [PMID: 24212796 PMCID: PMC3757404 DOI: 10.3390/cancers3022050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2011] [Revised: 04/12/2011] [Accepted: 04/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of Wnt ligands to initiate a signaling cascade that results in cytoplasmic stabilization of, and nuclear localization of, β-catenin underlies their ability to regulate progenitor cell differentiation. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge of the mechanisms underlying Wnt/β-catenin signaling and how the pathway regulates normal differentiation of stem cells in the intestine, mammary gland, and prostate. We will also discuss how dysregulation of the pathway is associated with putative cancer stem cells and the potential therapeutic implications of regulating Wnt signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth C Valkenburg
- Van Andel Research Institute, 333 Bostwick Ave. N.E., Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA.
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204
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Normal and neoplastic nonstem cells can spontaneously convert to a stem-like state. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:7950-5. [PMID: 21498687 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1102454108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 861] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Current models of stem cell biology assume that normal and neoplastic stem cells reside at the apices of hierarchies and differentiate into nonstem progeny in a unidirectional manner. Here we identify a subpopulation of basal-like human mammary epithelial cells that departs from that assumption, spontaneously dedifferentiating into stem-like cells. Moreover, oncogenic transformation enhances the spontaneous conversion, so that nonstem cancer cells give rise to cancer stem cell (CSC)-like cells in vitro and in vivo. We further show that the differentiation state of normal cells-of-origin is a strong determinant of posttransformation behavior. These findings demonstrate that normal and CSC-like cells can arise de novo from more differentiated cell types and that hierarchical models of mammary stem cell biology should encompass bidirectional interconversions between stem and nonstem compartments. The observed plasticity may allow derivation of patient-specific adult stem cells without genetic manipulation and holds important implications for therapeutic strategies to eradicate cancer.
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205
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Lindeman GJ, Visvader JE. Cell fate takes a slug in BRCA1-associated breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2011; 13:306. [PMID: 21489318 PMCID: PMC3219185 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding why BRCA1 mutation carriers have a predilection for developing clinically aggressive basal-like breast tumors could inform the development of targeted treatment or prevention strategies. Analysis of both mouse and human mammary epithelial cells has identified a role for BRCA1 in orchestrating differentiation. The ability to isolate discrete epithelial subpopulations from mammary tissue has recently directed attention to luminal progenitor cells - the descendants of mammary stem cells - as the likely 'cells-of-origin' in BRCA1-associated breast cancer. A new publication has confirmed the importance of aberrant luminal cells as key culprits and provided insights on how BRCA1 haploinsufficiency biases luminal cells toward a basal-like fate through aberrant expression of the transcription factor SLUG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey J Lindeman
- Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia.
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206
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Kittrell FS, Carletti MZ, Kerbawy S, Heestand J, Xian W, Zhang M, Lamarca HL, Sonnenberg A, Rosen JM, Medina D, Behbod F. Prospective isolation and characterization of committed and multipotent progenitors from immortalized mouse mammary epithelial cells with morphogenic potential. Breast Cancer Res 2011; 13:R41. [PMID: 21466693 PMCID: PMC3219204 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Utilizing single-cell cloning of the COMMA-D cell line engineered to express β-galactosidase (CDβ) cell line, which exhibits normal in vivo morphogenesis, distinct multipotent, ductal-limited, alveolar-limited and luminal-restricted progenitors, have been isolated and characterized. Methods A single-cell suspension of CDβ cells was stained using Hoechst dye 33342, followed by analysis and sorting. Cells that effluxed the dye appeared on the left side of a FACS analysis panel and were referred to as side population (SP) cells. Cells that retained the dye appeared on the right side and were referred to as non-SP (NSP) cells. Cells from both SP and NSP regions were sorted and analyzed for outgrowth potential. Additionally, individual clones were derived from single cells sorted from each region. Results There was no difference in the outgrowth potential of the SP vs. NSP cells when 5,000 cells per fat pad were transplanted. However, individual clones derived from single cells sorted from either SP or NSP regions had varying growth potential. A total of nine clones were identified, four of which possessed in vivo mammary outgrowth potential and five of which lacked in vivo outgrowth potential. Two of the clones formed mammary lobuloalveolar structures that contained both ducts and alveoli and were termed multipotent. Two of the clones generated either ductal-only or alveolar-only structures and were referred to as ductal-limited or alveolar-limited progenitor clones, respectively. The ability to expand the clones in vitro allowed for the characterization of their unique molecular phenotypes. Among the mammary-specific markers tested, high cytokeratin 5 (CK5) expression was the only marker that correlated with the clones' outgrowth potential. Among the clones that did not show any in vivo outgrowth potential when transplanted alone, one clone showed in vivo growth and incorporated into the mammary lumen when mixed with normal mammary epithelial cells. This clone also showed the highest in vitro expression of CK8 and Elf5and may represent a luminal-restricted progenitor clone. In addition, six "biclones," each made from an SP cell plus an NSP cell, were analyzed. Of these six, three exhibited lobuloalveolar growth. Conclusions Distinct immortalized mammary progenitors have been isolated and characterized. Importantly, the results of this study provide further evidence for the existence of distinct ductal and alveolar mammary progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances S Kittrell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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207
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Transplantation of a mammary stromal cell line into a mammary fat pad: development of the site-specific in vivo analysis system for mammary stromal cells. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2011; 75:550-5. [PMID: 21389616 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.100773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The interaction between mammary epithelial and stromal tissue is considered to be important in breast tissue development. In this study, we developed a transplantation procedure for the mammary stromal fibroblastic cell line (MSF) to examine its life in vivo. First we established MSF cells which stably expressed lacZ (lacZ/MSF) and had characteristics of mammary stromal cells. The lacZ/MSF cells were then transplanted into a cleared mammary fat pad of syngenic mice with and without mammary primary epithelial organoids. Whole mount X-gal and carmine staining of the transplants revealed that a number of undifferentiated lacZ/MSF cells survived around the mammary epithelial tissue when transplanted with organoids. These results indicate that transplantation of MSF cells into mammary fat pad was accomplished by co-transplantation with primary mammary organoids. Finally, we discuss the application of transplantation procedure for in vivo studies of the mammary stromal tissue development and stromal-epithelial interactions.
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208
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Holland DG, Burleigh A, Git A, Goldgraben MA, Perez-Mancera PA, Chin SF, Hurtado A, Bruna A, Ali HR, Greenwood W, Dunning MJ, Samarajiwa S, Menon S, Rueda OM, Lynch AG, McKinney S, Ellis IO, Eaves CJ, Carroll JS, Curtis C, Aparicio S, Caldas C. ZNF703 is a common Luminal B breast cancer oncogene that differentially regulates luminal and basal progenitors in human mammary epithelium. EMBO Mol Med 2011; 3:167-80. [PMID: 21337521 PMCID: PMC3395113 DOI: 10.1002/emmm.201100122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2010] [Revised: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The telomeric amplicon at 8p12 is common in oestrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancers. Array-CGH and expression analyses of 1172 primary breast tumours revealed that ZNF703 was the single gene within the minimal amplicon and was amplified predominantly in the Luminal B subtype. Amplification was shown to correlate with increased gene and protein expression and was associated with a distinct expression signature and poor clinical outcome. ZNF703 transformed NIH 3T3 fibroblasts, behaving as a classical oncogene, and regulated proliferation in human luminal breast cancer cell lines and immortalized human mammary epithelial cells. Manipulation of ZNF703 expression in the luminal MCF7 cell line modified the effects of TGFβ on proliferation. Overexpression of ZNF703 in normal human breast epithelial cells enhanced the frequency of in vitro colony-forming cells from luminal progenitors. Taken together, these data strongly point to ZNF703 as a novel oncogene in Luminal B breast cancer.
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209
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Al-Ejeh F, Smart CE, Morrison BJ, Chenevix-Trench G, López JA, Lakhani SR, Brown MP, Khanna KK. Breast cancer stem cells: treatment resistance and therapeutic opportunities. Carcinogenesis 2011; 32:650-8. [PMID: 21310941 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgr028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical and pathologic heterogeneity of human breast cancer has long been recognized. Now, molecular profiling has enriched our understanding of breast cancer heterogeneity and yielded new prognostic and predictive information. Despite recent therapeutic advances, including the HER2-specific agent, trastuzumab, locoregional and systemic disease recurrence remain an ever-present threat to the health and well being of breast cancer survivors. By definition, disease recurrence originates from residual treatment-resistant cells, which regenerate at least the initial breast cancer phenotype. The discovery of the normal breast stem cell has re-ignited interest in the identity and properties of breast cancer stem-like cells and the relationship of these cells to the repopulating ability of treatment-resistant cells. The cancer stem cell model of breast cancer development contrasts with the clonal evolution model, whereas the mixed model draws on features of both. Although the origin and identity of breast cancer stem-like cells is contentious, treatment-resistant cells survive and propagate only because aberrant and potentially druggable signaling pathways are recruited. As a means to increase the rates of breast cancer cure, several approaches to specific targeting of the treatment-resistant cell population exist and include methods for addressing the problem of radioresistance in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fares Al-Ejeh
- Signal Transduction Lab, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Road, Brisbane, Queensland 4006, Australia
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210
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May CD, Sphyris N, Evans KW, Werden SJ, Guo W, Mani SA. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition and cancer stem cells: a dangerously dynamic duo in breast cancer progression. Breast Cancer Res 2011; 13:202. [PMID: 21392411 PMCID: PMC3109556 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aberrant activation of a latent embryonic program - known as the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) - can endow cancer cells with the migratory and invasive capabilities associated with metastatic competence. The induction of EMT entails the loss of epithelial characteristics and the de novo acquisition of a mesenchymal phenotype. In breast cancer, the EMT state has been associated with cancer stem cell properties including expression of the stem cell-associated CD44+/CD24-/low antigenic profile, self-renewal capabilities and resistance to conventional therapies. Intriguingly, EMT features are also associated with stem cells isolated from the normal mouse mammary gland and human breast reduction tissues as well as the highly aggressive metaplastic and claudin-low breast tumor subtypes. This has implications for the origin of these breast tumors as it remains unclear whether they derive from cells that have undergone EMT or whether they represent an expansion of a pre-existing stem cell population that expresses EMT-associated markers to begin with. In the present review, we consider the current evidence connecting EMT and stem cell attributes and discuss the ramifications of these newly recognized links for our understanding of the emergence of distinct breast cancer subtypes and breast cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin D May
- Department of Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77054, USA
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211
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Pringle S, Nanduri LSY, van der Zwaag M, van Os R, Coppes RP. Isolation of mouse salivary gland stem cells. J Vis Exp 2011:2484. [PMID: 21339725 PMCID: PMC3197405 DOI: 10.3791/2484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mature salivary glands of both human and mouse origin comprise a minimum of five cell types, each of which facilitates the production and excretion of saliva into the oral cavity. Serous and mucous acinar cells are the protein and mucous producing factories of the gland respectively, and represent the origin of saliva production. Once synthesised, the various enzymatic and other proteinaceous components of saliva are secreted through a series of ductal cells bearing epithelial-type morphology, until the eventual expulsion of the saliva through one major duct into the cavity of the mouth. The composition of saliva is also modified by the ductal cells during this process. In the manifestation of diseases such as Sjögren's syndrome, and in some clinical situations such as radiotherapy treatment for head and neck cancers, saliva production by the glands is dramatically reduced 1,2. The resulting xerostomia, a subjective feeling of dry mouth, affects not only the ability of the patient to swallow and speak, but also encourages the development of dental caries and can be socially debilitating for the sufferer. The restoration of saliva production in the above-mentioned clinical conditions therefore represents an unmet clinical need, and as such several studies have demonstrated the regenerative capacity of the salivary glands 3-5. Further to the isolation of stem cell-like populations of cells from various tissues within the mouse and human bodies 6-8, we have shown using the described method that stem cells isolated from mouse salivary glands can be used to rescue saliva production in irradiated salivary glands 9,10. This discovery paves the way for the development of stem cell-based therapies for the treatment of xerostomic conditions in humans, and also for the exploration of the salivary gland as a microenvironment containing cells with multipotent self-renewing capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Pringle
- Department of Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen
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212
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Appraisal of progenitor markers in the context of molecular classification of breast cancers. Breast Cancer Res 2011; 13:102. [PMID: 21345245 PMCID: PMC3109558 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical management of breast cancer relies on case stratification, which increasingly employs molecular markers. The motivation behind delineating breast epithelial differentiation is to better target cancer cases through innate sensitivities bequeathed to the cancer from its normal progenitor state. A combination of histopathological and molecular classification of breast cancer cases suggests a role for progenitors in particular breast cancer cases. Although a remarkable fraction of the real tissue repertoire is maintained within a population of independent cell line cultures, some steps that are closer to the terminal differentiation state and that form a majority of primary human breast tissues are missing in the cell line cultures. This raises concerns about current breast cancer models.
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213
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From milk to malignancy: the role of mammary stem cells in development, pregnancy and breast cancer. Cell Res 2011; 21:245-57. [PMID: 21243011 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2011.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult stem cells of the mammary gland (MaSCs) are a highly dynamic population of cells that are responsible for the generation of the gland during puberty and its expansion during pregnancy. In recent years significant advances have been made in understanding how these cells are regulated during these developmentally important processes both in humans and in mice. Understanding how MaSCs are regulated is becoming a particularly important area of research, given that they may be particularly susceptible targets for transformation in breast cancer. Here, we summarize the identification of MaSCs, how they are regulated and the evidence for their serving as the origins of breast cancer. In particular, we focus on how changes in MaSC populations may explain both the increased risk of developing aggressive ER/PR(-) breast cancer shortly after pregnancy and the long-term decreased risk of developing ER/PR(+) tumors.
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214
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Abstract
Both mouse and human mammary glands contain stem/progenitor functional hierarchies that are maintained through the entire life span of the animal. Cells with such functional capacities are potential candidates for tumorigenesis as they are long lived, multipotent, and self-renewing. Using the mouse as a model, this review will discuss what is known about the mammary stem/progenitor hierarchy, the evidence that particular progenitor functions are susceptible to tumorigenic stimuli, how these findings in mice are relevant to the disease in humans, and the role of the local microenvironment in controlling tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert D. Bruno
- Mammary Biology and Tumorigenesis Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gilbert H. Smith
- Mammary Biology and Tumorigenesis Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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215
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Fan Y, Chong YS, Choolani MA, Cregan MD, Chan JKY. Unravelling the mystery of stem/progenitor cells in human breast milk. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14421. [PMID: 21203434 PMCID: PMC3010984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2010] [Accepted: 11/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mammary stem cells have been extensively studied as a system to delineate the pathogenesis and treatment of breast cancer. However, research on mammary stem cells requires tissue biopsies which limit the quantity of samples available. We have previously identified putative mammary stem cells in human breast milk, and here, we further characterised the cellular component of human breast milk. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We identified markers associated with haemopoietic, mesenchymal and neuro-epithelial lineages in the cellular component of human breast milk. We found 2.6 ± 0.8% (mean ± SEM) and 0.7 ± 0.2% of the whole cell population (WCP) were found to be CD133+ and CD34+ respectively, 27.8 ± 9.1% of the WCP to be positive for Stro-1 through flow-cytometry. Expressions of neuro-ectodermal stem cell markers such as nestin and cytokeratin 5 were found through reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and in 4.17 ± 0.2% and 0.9 ± 0.2% of the WCP on flow-cytometry. We also established the presence of a side-population (SP) (1.8 ± 0.4% of WCP) as well as CD133+ cells (1.7 ± 0.5% of the WCP). Characterisation of the sorted SP and non-SP, CD133+ and CD133- cells carried out showed enrichment of CD326 (EPCAM) in the SP cells (50.6 ± 8.6 vs 18.1 ± 6.0, P-value = 0.02). However, culture in a wide range of in vitro conditions revealed the atypical behaviour of stem/progenitor cells in human breast milk; in that if they are present, they do not respond to established culture protocols of stem/progenitor cells. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The identification of primitive cell types within human breast milk may provide a non-invasive source of relevant mammary cells for a wide-range of applications; even the possibility of banking one's own stem cell for every breastfeeding woman.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiping Fan
- Experimental Fetal Medicine Group, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
- * E-mail: (YF); (JKYC)
| | - Yap Seng Chong
- Experimental Fetal Medicine Group, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Mahesh A. Choolani
- Experimental Fetal Medicine Group, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Mark D. Cregan
- School of Biomedical, Biomolecular and Chemical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, Australia
| | - Jerry K. Y. Chan
- Experimental Fetal Medicine Group, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
- Cancer and Stem Cell Biology Program, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
- * E-mail: (YF); (JKYC)
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216
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Stingl J. Estrogen and progesterone in normal mammary gland development and in cancer. Discov Oncol 2010; 2:85-90. [PMID: 21761331 DOI: 10.1007/s12672-010-0055-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
There is emerging evidence that the mammary epithelium in both mice and humans is arranged as a hierarchy that spans from stem cells to differentiated hormone-sensing, milk-producing and myoepithelial cells. It is well established that estrogen is an important mediator of mammary gland morphogenesis and exposure to this hormone is associated with increased breast cancer risk. Yet surprisingly, the primitive cells of the mammary epithelium do not express the estrogen receptor-α (ERα) or the progesterone receptor. This article will review the mammary epithelial cell hierarchy, possible cells of origin of different types of breast tumors, and the potential mechanisms on how estrogen and progesterone may influence the different subcomponents in normal development and in cancer. Also presented are some hypothetical scenarios on how this underlying biology may be reflected in the behavior of ERα(+) and ERα(-) breast tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Stingl
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Research Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, UK.
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217
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Eirew P, Stingl J, Eaves CJ. Quantitation of human mammary epithelial stem cells with in vivo regenerative properties using a subrenal capsule xenotransplantation assay. Nat Protoc 2010; 5:1945-56. [DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2010.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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218
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Keller PJ, Lin AF, Arendt LM, Klebba I, Jones AD, Rudnick JA, DiMeo TA, Gilmore H, Jefferson DM, Graham RA, Naber SP, Schnitt S, Kuperwasser C. Mapping the cellular and molecular heterogeneity of normal and malignant breast tissues and cultured cell lines. Breast Cancer Res 2010; 12:R87. [PMID: 20964822 PMCID: PMC3096980 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Normal and neoplastic breast tissues are comprised of heterogeneous populations of epithelial cells exhibiting various degrees of maturation and differentiation. While cultured cell lines have been derived from both normal and malignant tissues, it remains unclear to what extent they retain similar levels of differentiation and heterogeneity as that found within breast tissues. Methods We used 12 reduction mammoplasty tissues, 15 primary breast cancer tissues, and 20 human breast epithelial cell lines (16 cancer lines, 4 normal lines) to perform flow cytometry for CD44, CD24, epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), and CD49f expression, as well as immunohistochemistry, and in vivo tumor xenograft formation studies to extensively analyze the molecular and cellular characteristics of breast epithelial cell lineages. Results Human breast tissues contain four distinguishable epithelial differentiation states (two luminal phenotypes and two basal phenotypes) that differ on the basis of CD24, EpCAM and CD49f expression. Primary human breast cancer tissues also contain these four cellular states, but in altered proportions compared to normal tissues. In contrast, cultured cancer cell lines are enriched for rare basal and mesenchymal epithelial phenotypes, which are normally present in small numbers within human tissues. Similarly, cultured normal human mammary epithelial cell lines are enriched for rare basal and mesenchymal phenotypes that represent a minor fraction of cells within reduction mammoplasty tissues. Furthermore, although normal human mammary epithelial cell lines exhibit features of bi-potent progenitor cells they are unable to differentiate into mature luminal breast epithelial cells under standard culture conditions. Conclusions As a group breast cancer cell lines represent the heterogeneity of human breast tumors, but individually they exhibit increased lineage-restricted profiles that fall short of truly representing the intratumoral heterogeneity of individual breast tumors. Additionally, normal human mammary epithelial cell lines fail to retain much of the cellular diversity found in human breast tissues and are enriched for differentiation states that are a minority in breast tissues, although they do exhibit features of bi-potent basal progenitor cells. These findings suggest that collections of cell lines representing multiple cell types can be used to model the cellular heterogeneity of tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrica J Keller
- Department of Anatomy & Cellular Biology, Sackler School, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
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219
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Martignani E, Eirew P, Accornero P, Eaves CJ, Baratta M. Human milk protein production in xenografts of genetically engineered bovine mammary epithelial stem cells. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13372. [PMID: 20976049 PMCID: PMC2957408 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In the bovine species milk production is well known to correlate with mammary tissue mass. However, most advances in optimizing milk production relied on improvements of breeding and husbandry practices. A better understanding of the cells that generate bovine mammary tissue could facilitate important advances in milk production and have global economic impact. With this possibility in mind, we show that a mammary stem cell population can be functionally identified and isolated from the bovine mammary gland. We also demonstrate that this stem cell population may be a promising target for manipulating the composition of cow's milk using gene transfer. Methods and Findings We show that the in vitro colony-forming cell assay for detecting normal primitive bipotent and lineage-restricted human mammary clonogenic progenitors are applicable to bovine mammary cells. Similarly, the ability of normal human mammary stem cells to regenerate functional bilayered structures in collagen gels placed under the kidney capsule of immunodeficient mice is shared by a subset of bovine mammary cells that lack aldehyde dehydrogenase activity. We also find that this activity is a distinguishing feature of luminal-restricted bovine progenitors. The regenerated structures recapitulate the organization of bovine mammary tissue, and milk could be readily detected in these structures when they were assessed by immunohistochemical analysis. Transplantation of the bovine cells transduced with a lentivirus encoding human β-CASEIN led to expression of the transgene and secretion of the product by their progeny regenerated in vivo. Conclusions These findings point to a common developmental hierarchy shared by human and bovine mammary glands, providing strong evidence of common mechanisms regulating the maintenance and differentiation of mammary stem cells from both species. These results highlight the potential of novel engineering and transplant strategies for a variety of commercial applications including the production of modified milk components for human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenio Martignani
- Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
- Terry Fox Laboratory, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Peter Eirew
- Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
- Terry Fox Laboratory, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Paolo Accornero
- Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Connie J. Eaves
- Terry Fox Laboratory, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Mario Baratta
- Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
- * E-mail:
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220
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Lindeman GJ, Visvader JE. Insights into the cell of origin in breast cancer and breast cancer stem cells. Asia Pac J Clin Oncol 2010; 6:89-97. [PMID: 20565420 DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-7563.2010.01279.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The precise cell types that give rise to tumors and mechanisms that underpin tumor heterogeneity are poorly understood. There is increasing evidence to suggest that diverse solid tumors are hierarchically organized and may be sustained by a distinct subpopulation of cancer stem cells (CSCs). The CSC hypothesis provides an attractive cellular mechanism that can account for the therapeutic refractoriness and dormant behavior exhibited by many tumor types. Breast cancer was the first solid malignancy from which CSCs were identified and isolated. Direct evidence for the CSC hypothesis has also recently emerged from mouse models of mammary tumorigenesis, although alternative models to explain heterogeneity also seem to apply. Our group has found that the luminal epithelial progenitor marker CD61/beta3 integrin identified a CSC population in mammary tumors from MMTV-wnt-1 mice. However, no CSCs could be identified in the more homogeneous MMTV-neu/erbB2 model, suggesting an alternate (clonal evolution or stochastic) model of tumorigenesis. It seems likely that both paradigms of tumor propagation exist in human cancer. From a clinical perspective, the CSC concept has significant implications. Quiescent CSCs are thought to be more resistant to chemotherapy and targeted therapy. Enrichment of putative CSCs has been noted in studies of chemotherapy-treated patients, lending support to the CSC hypothesis and their potential role in chemoresistance. Although many unresolved questions on CSCs remain, ongoing efforts to identify and characterize CSCs continue to be an important area of investigation, with the potential to identify novel tumor targeting strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey J Lindeman
- Breast Cancer Laboratory, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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221
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Goldstein AS, Stoyanova T, Witte ON. Primitive origins of prostate cancer: in vivo evidence for prostate-regenerating cells and prostate cancer-initiating cells. Mol Oncol 2010; 4:385-96. [PMID: 20688584 PMCID: PMC2939195 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2010.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Revised: 06/23/2010] [Accepted: 06/24/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue stem cells have been linked to cancers of epithelial origin including the prostate. There are three relevant issues concerning stem cells and cancer that rely solely on functional studies: 1. Are there tissue-regenerating stem cells in the adult organ? 2. Can tissue-regenerating cells serve as targets for transformation? 3. Do primary tumors contain tumor-propagating (cancer stem) cells? We will review the recent literature with respect to these critical issues to provide a direct link between primitive cells and prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Goldstein
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1662, USA
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222
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Pajic M, Kersbergen A, van Diepen F, Pfauth A, Jonkers J, Borst P, Rottenberg S. Tumor-initiating cells are not enriched in cisplatin-surviving BRCA1;p53-deficient mammary tumor cells in vivo. Cell Cycle 2010; 9:3780-91. [PMID: 20855963 DOI: 10.4161/cc.9.18.13002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Although many breast cancers respond to chemotherapy or hormonal therapy, lack of tumor eradication is a central clinical problem preceding the development of drug resistant tumors. Using the K14cre;Brca1(F5-13/F5-13);p53(F2-10/F2-10) mouse model for hereditary breast cancer, we have previously studied responses of mammary tumors to clinically relevant anti-cancer drugs, including cisplatin. The BRCA1- and p53-deficient tumors generated in this model are hypersensitive to cisplatin and never become resistant to this agent due to the large, irreversible deletion in Brca1. We show here that even dose-dense treatment with a maximum tolerated dose of cisplatin does not result in complete tumor eradication. To explain this result we have addressed the hypothesis that the lack of eradication of drug-sensitive tumors is due to increased in vivo chemotherapy resistance of tumor-initiating cells (TICs). Using the CD24 and CD49f cell surface markers which detect normal mouse mammary stem cells, we have identified tumor-initiating cells in BRCA1- and p53-deficient tumors. In addition to the Lin⁻/CD24(+)/CD49f(+) subpopulation, we show that a larger population of Lin⁻/CD24(+)/CD49f-cells also has tumor-initiating capability in at least two serial orthotopic transplantations, suggesting that these are not more differentiated transit-amplifying cells. However, we did not find an enrichment of TICs in cisplatin-treated tumor remnants. We conclude that in this model the tolerance of the cisplatin-surviving cells cannot be attributed to special biochemical defense mechanisms of TICs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Pajic
- Division of Molecular Biology of the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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223
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Abstract
The origins of the epithelial cells participating in the development, tissue homeostasis, and cancer of the human breast are poorly understood. However, emerging evidence suggests a role for adult tissue-specific stem cells in these processes. In a hierarchical manner, these generate the two main mammary cell lineages, producing an increasing number of cells with distinct properties. Understanding the biological characteristics of human breast stem cells and their progeny is crucial in attempts to compare the features of normal stem cells and cancer precursor cells and distinguish these from nonprecursor cells and cells from the bulk of a tumor. A historical overview of research on human breast stem cells in primary tissue and in culture reveals the progress that has been made in this area, whereas a focus on the cell-of-origin and reprogramming that occurs during neoplastic conversion provides insight into the enigmatic way in which human breast cancers are skewed toward the luminal epithelial lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ole William Petersen
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, The Panum Building, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark.
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224
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Targeting tumour-initiating cells to improve the cure rates for triple-negative breast cancer. Expert Rev Mol Med 2010; 12:e22. [PMID: 20653987 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399410001535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tumour recurrence is one of the biggest challenges in breast cancer management because it affects 25-30% of women with breast cancer and the tumours are often incurable. Women with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC--lacking expression of the oestrogen receptor, progesterone receptor and the receptor HER2/ERBB2) have the highest rates of early recurrence relative to other breast cancer subtypes. Early recurrence might be due to tumour-initiating cells (TICs), which are resistant to conventional therapies, can remain dormant and can subsequently give rise to secondary tumours. In breast cancer, TICs are identified by the cell-surface markers CD44+/CD24-/EpCAM+ and/or possess ALDH1 enzyme activity. This subpopulation has the ability to self-renew, grow as mammospheres and initiate tumour formation. Fuelling the problem of relapse is the fact that chemotherapy and radiation can induce or select for TICs; this was reported in preclinical models and more recently in women being treated for breast cancer. Thus, new therapeutic agents for TNBC are presently being sought to overcome this problem. Here we review the roles of receptor tyrosine kinases, signalling intermediates and transcription factors in sustaining the TIC subpopulation. Particular emphasis is placed on targeting these molecules in order to eliminate and/or prevent the induction of TICs and ultimately reduce the frequency of TNBC recurrence.
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225
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Targeting breast cancer stem cells. Mol Oncol 2010; 4:404-19. [PMID: 20599450 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2010.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Revised: 06/09/2010] [Accepted: 06/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The cancer stem cell (CSC) hypothesis postulates that tumors are maintained by a self-renewing CSC population that is also capable of differentiating into non-self-renewing cell populations that constitute the bulk of the tumor. Although, the CSC hypothesis does not directly address the cell of origin of cancer, it is postulated that tissue-resident stem or progenitor cells are the most common targets of transformation. Clinically, CSCs are predicted to mediate tumor recurrence after chemo- and radiation-therapy due to the relative inability of these modalities to effectively target CSCs. If this is the case, then CSC must be efficiently targeted to achieve a true cure. Similarities between normal and malignant stem cells, at the levels of cell-surface proteins, molecular pathways, cell cycle quiescence, and microRNA signaling present challenges in developing CSC-specific therapeutics. Approaches to targeting CSCs include the development of agents targeting known stem cell regulatory pathways as well as unbiased high-throughput siRNA or small molecule screening. Based on studies of pathways present in normal stem cells, recent work has identified potential "Achilles heals" of CSC, whereas unbiased screening provides opportunities to identify new pathways utilized by CSC as well as develop potential therapeutic agents. Here, we review both approaches and their potential to effectively target breast CSC.
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226
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LaMarca HL, Visbal AP, Creighton CJ, Liu H, Zhang Y, Behbod F, Rosen JM. CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta regulates stem cell activity and specifies luminal cell fate in the mammary gland. Stem Cells 2010; 28:535-44. [PMID: 20054865 DOI: 10.1002/stem.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The bZIP transcription factor C/EBP beta is important for mammary gland development and its expression is deregulated in human breast cancer. To determine whether C/EBP beta regulates mammary stem cells (MaSCs), we employed two different knockout strategies. Using both a germline and a conditional knockout strategy, we demonstrate that mammosphere formation was significantly decreased in C/EBP beta-deficient mammary epithelial cells (MECs). Functional limiting dilution transplantation assays indicated that the repopulating ability of C/EBP beta-deleted MECs was severely impaired. Serial transplantation experiments demonstrated that C/EBP beta deletion resulted in decreased outgrowth potential and premature MaSC senescence. In accord, fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis demonstrated that C/EBP beta-null MECs contained fewer MaSCs, the loss of luminal progenitors and an increase in differentiated luminal cells as compared with wild-type. Gene profiling of C/EBP beta-null stem cells revealed an alteration in cell fate specification, exemplified by the expression of basal markers in the luminal compartment. Thus, C/EBP beta is a critical regulator of both MaSC repopulation activity and luminal cell lineage commitment. These findings have critical implications for understanding both stem cell biology and the etiology of different breast cancer subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather L LaMarca
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
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227
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Li R, Liang J, Ni S, Zhou T, Qing X, Li H, He W, Chen J, Li F, Zhuang Q, Qin B, Xu J, Li W, Yang J, Gan Y, Qin D, Feng S, Song H, Yang D, Zhang B, Zeng L, Lai L, Esteban MA, Pei D. A mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition initiates and is required for the nuclear reprogramming of mouse fibroblasts. Cell Stem Cell 2010; 7:51-63. [PMID: 20621050 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2010.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 896] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2010] [Revised: 03/26/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a developmental process important for cell fate determination. Fibroblasts, a product of EMT, can be reset into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) via exogenous transcription factors but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Here we show that the generation of iPSCs from mouse fibroblasts requires a mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) orchestrated by suppressing pro-EMT signals from the culture medium and activating an epithelial program inside the cells. At the transcriptional level, Sox2/Oct4 suppress the EMT mediator Snail, c-Myc downregulates TGF-beta1 and TGF-beta receptor 2, and Klf4 induces epithelial genes including E-cadherin. Blocking MET impairs the reprogramming of fibroblasts whereas preventing EMT in epithelial cells cultured with serum can produce iPSCs without Klf4 and c-Myc. Our work not only establishes MET as a key cellular mechanism toward induced pluripotency, but also demonstrates iPSC generation as a cooperative process between the defined factors and the extracellular milieu. PAPERCLIP:
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronghui Li
- Stem Cell and Cancer Biology Group, Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, South China Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
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228
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Groner B, Vafaizadeh V, Brill B, Klemmt P. Stem cells of the breast and cancer therapy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 6:205-19. [PMID: 20187727 DOI: 10.2217/whe.10.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer remains a significant public health problem despite advances in the understanding of the molecular and cellular events that underlie the disease. Crucial pathways regulating the cell cycle, proliferation and survival of breast cancer cells have been investigated and aberrant components of these pathways have been exploited as new drug targets. However, the mortality from breast cancer is only slowly declining. Recently, a model has been proposed that might explain the heterogeneous biological features of breast cancer cell populations and their differential response to therapeutic agents, which has interesting implications for further progress in therapy. This model links the emergence of breast cancer cells to stem cells and progenitors, an observation originally made in other cancer entities. It hypothesizes that the tumors originate from a small population of undifferentiated cells. These cells can undergo self-renewal and are able to generate a large number of partially differentiated cells, which constitute the bulk of the tumor. These cancer stem cells resemble adult stem and progenitor cells found in the normal breast, but are deregulated in their patterns of proliferation and differentiation. They could originate from normal stem cells or from more differentiated progenitors and lose their normal growth restraints through a series of oncogenic mutations that deregulate a small number of central signaling pathways. If breast cancer really is a stem and progenitor cell disease, this will have important implications for the understanding of the emergence of cancer cells. A combination of the cell-type of origin, stem cells, early or late progenitors and the particular oncogenic mutations acquired could provide a new classification of the different types of breast cancer. These parameters might determine the mechanisms of cancer progression and the responsiveness of patients to drug treatment. Stem cell-specific features could possibly be exploited as innovative drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Groner
- Georg Speyer Haus, Institute for Biomedical Research, Frankfurt, Germany.
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229
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230
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Bachelard-Cascales E, Chapellier M, Delay E, Pochon G, Voeltzel T, Puisieux A, Caron de Fromentel C, Maguer-Satta V. The CD10 Enzyme Is a Key Player to Identify and Regulate Human Mammary Stem Cells. Stem Cells 2010; 28:1081-8. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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231
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Transcription factor regulatory networks in mammary epithelial development and tumorigenesis. Oncogene 2010; 29:2753-9. [DOI: 10.1038/onc.2010.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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232
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Lim E, Wu D, Pal B, Bouras T, Asselin-Labat ML, Vaillant F, Yagita H, Lindeman GJ, Smyth GK, Visvader JE. Transcriptome analyses of mouse and human mammary cell subpopulations reveal multiple conserved genes and pathways. Breast Cancer Res 2010; 12:R21. [PMID: 20346151 PMCID: PMC2879567 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/26/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Molecular characterization of the normal epithelial cell types that reside in the mammary gland is an important step toward understanding pathways that regulate self-renewal, lineage commitment, and differentiation along the hierarchy. Here we determined the gene expression signatures of four distinct subpopulations isolated from the mouse mammary gland. The epithelial cell signatures were used to interrogate mouse models of mammary tumorigenesis and to compare with their normal human counterpart subsets to identify conserved genes and networks. Methods RNA was prepared from freshly sorted mouse mammary cell subpopulations (mammary stem cell (MaSC)-enriched, committed luminal progenitor, mature luminal and stromal cell) and used for gene expression profiling analysis on the Illumina platform. Gene signatures were derived and compared with those previously reported for the analogous normal human mammary cell subpopulations. The mouse and human epithelial subset signatures were then subjected to Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) to identify conserved pathways. Results The four mouse mammary cell subpopulations exhibited distinct gene signatures. Comparison of these signatures with the molecular profiles of different mouse models of mammary tumorigenesis revealed that tumors arising in MMTV-Wnt-1 and p53-/- mice were enriched for MaSC-subset genes, whereas the gene profiles of MMTV-Neu and MMTV-PyMT tumors were most concordant with the luminal progenitor cell signature. Comparison of the mouse mammary epithelial cell signatures with their human counterparts revealed substantial conservation of genes, whereas IPA highlighted a number of conserved pathways in the three epithelial subsets. Conclusions The conservation of genes and pathways across species further validates the use of the mouse as a model to study mammary gland development and highlights pathways that are likely to govern cell-fate decisions and differentiation. It is noteworthy that many of the conserved genes in the MaSC population have been considered as epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) signature genes. Therefore, the expression of these genes in tumor cells may reflect basal epithelial cell characteristics and not necessarily cells that have undergone an EMT. Comparative analyses of normal mouse epithelial subsets with murine tumor models have implicated distinct cell types in contributing to tumorigenesis in the different models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elgene Lim
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia.
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233
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To K, Fotovati A, Reipas KM, Law JH, Hu K, Wang J, Astanehe A, Davies AH, Lee L, Stratford AL, Raouf A, Johnson P, Berquin IM, Royer HD, Eaves CJ, Dunn SE. Y-box binding protein-1 induces the expression of CD44 and CD49f leading to enhanced self-renewal, mammosphere growth, and drug resistance. Cancer Res 2010; 70:2840-51. [PMID: 20332234 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-3155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Y-box binding protein-1 (YB-1) is an oncogenic transcription/translation factor expressed in >40% of breast cancers, where it is associated with poor prognosis, disease recurrence, and drug resistance. We questioned whether this may be linked to the ability of YB-1 to induce the expression of genes linked to cancer stem cells such as CD44 and CD49f. Herein, we report that YB-1 binds the CD44 and CD49f promoters to transcriptionally upregulate their expressions. The introduction of wild-type (WT) YB-1 or activated P-YB-1(S102) stimulated the production of CD44 and CD49f in MDA-MB-231 and SUM 149 breast cancer cell lines. YB-1-transfected cells also bound to the CD44 ligand hyaluronan more than the control cells. Similarly, YB-1 was induced in immortalized breast epithelial cells and upregulated CD44. Conversely, silencing YB-1 decreased CD44 expression as well as reporter activity in SUM 149 cells. In mice, expression of YB-1 in the mammary gland induces CD44 and CD49f with associated hyperplasia. Further, activated mutant YB-1(S102D) enhances self-renewal, primary and secondary mammosphere growth, and soft-agar colony growth, which were reversible via loss of CD44 or CD49f. We next addressed the consequence of this system on therapeutic responsiveness. Here, we show that paclitaxel induces P-YB-1(S102) expression, nuclear localization of activated YB-1, and CD44 expression. The overexpression of WT YB-1 promotes mammosphere growth in the presence of paclitaxel. Importantly, targeting YB-1 sensitized the CD44(High)/CD24(Low) cells to paclitaxel. In conclusion, YB-1 promotes cancer cell growth and drug resistance through its induction of CD44 and CD49f.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen To
- Experimental Medicine Program, University of British Columbia, Canada
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234
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Wang JC. Good cells gone bad: the cellular origins of cancer. Trends Mol Med 2010; 16:145-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2010.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2009] [Revised: 12/20/2009] [Accepted: 01/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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235
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Pece S, Tosoni D, Confalonieri S, Mazzarol G, Vecchi M, Ronzoni S, Bernard L, Viale G, Pelicci PG, Di Fiore PP. Biological and molecular heterogeneity of breast cancers correlates with their cancer stem cell content. Cell 2010; 140:62-73. [PMID: 20074520 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 708] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2008] [Revised: 02/18/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pathways that govern stem cell (SC) function are often subverted in cancer. Here, we report the isolation to near purity of human normal mammary SCs (hNMSCs), from cultured mammospheres, on the basis of their ability to retain the lipophilic dye PKH26 as a consequence of their quiescent nature. PKH26-positive cells possess all the characteristics of hNMSCs. The transcriptional profile of PKH26-positive cells (hNMSC signature) was able to predict biological and molecular features of breast cancers. By using markers of the hNMSC signature, we prospectively isolated SCs from the normal gland and from breast tumors. Poorly differentiated (G3) cancers displayed higher content of prospectively isolated cancer SCs (CSCs) than did well-differentiated (G1) cancers. By comparing G3 and G1 tumors in xenotransplantation experiments, we directly demonstrated that G3s are enriched in CSCs. Our data support the notion that the heterogeneous phenotypical and molecular traits of human breast cancers are a function of their CSC content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Pece
- IFOM, Fondazione Istituto FIRC di Oncologia Molecolare, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy.
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236
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D'Angelo RC, Wicha MS. Stem cells in normal development and cancer. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2010; 95:113-58. [PMID: 21075331 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385071-3.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter we provide an overview of stem cells in normal tissues as well as in many different types of cancers. All tissues in the body are derived from organ-specific stem cells that retain the ability to self-renew and differentiate into specific cell types. The cancer stem cell hypothesis suggests that tumors arise from cell populations with dysregulated self-renewal. This may be tissue stem cells or more differentiated cells that acquire self-renewal capabilities. In addition, we outline some useful assays for purification and isolation of cancer stem cells including the dye exclusion side population assay, flow cytometry sorting techniques for identification of putative cancer stem cell markers, tumorspheres assay, aldehyde dehydrogenase activity assay, PKH, and other membrane staining used to label the cancer stem cells, as well as in vivo xenograft transplantation assays. We also examine some of the cell signaling pathways that regulate stem cell self-renewal including the Notch, Hedgehog, HER2/PI3K/Akt/PTEN, and p53 pathways. We also review information demonstrating the involvement of the microenvironment or stem cell niche and its effects on the growth and maintenance of cancer stem cells. Finally, we highlight the therapeutic implications of targeting stem cells by inhibiting these pathways for the treatment and prevention of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosemarie Chirco D'Angelo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Visvader JE. Keeping abreast of the mammary epithelial hierarchy and breast tumorigenesis. Genes Dev 2009; 23:2563-77. [PMID: 19933147 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1849509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The epithelium of the mammary gland exists in a highly dynamic state, undergoing dramatic morphogenetic changes during puberty, pregnancy, lactation, and regression. The recent identification of stem and progenitor populations in mouse and human mammary tissue has provided evidence that the mammary epithelium is organized in a hierarchical manner. Characterization of these normal epithelial subtypes is an important step toward understanding which cells are predisposed to oncogenesis. This review summarizes progress in the field toward defining constituent cells and key molecular regulators of the mammary epithelial hierarchy. Potential relationships between normal epithelial populations and breast tumor subtypes are discussed, with implications for understanding the cellular etiology underpinning breast tumor heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Visvader
- VBCRC (Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium) Laboratory, The Walter and Eliza Hall of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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Groner B, Vafaizadeh V, Brill B, Klemmt P. Mammary epithelial and breast cancer stem cells. Eur J Cancer 2009; 45 Suppl 1:186-93. [DOI: 10.1016/s0959-8049(09)70032-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Shimono Y, Zabala M, Cho RW, Lobo N, Dalerba P, Qian D, Diehn M, Liu H, Panula SP, Chiao E, Dirbas FM, Somlo G, Pera RAR, Lao K, Clarke MF. Downregulation of miRNA-200c links breast cancer stem cells with normal stem cells. Cell 2009; 138:592-603. [PMID: 19665978 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 941] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2008] [Revised: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 07/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human breast tumors contain a breast cancer stem cell (BCSC) population with properties reminiscent of normal stem cells. We found 37 microRNAs that were differentially expressed between human BCSCs and nontumorigenic cancer cells. Three clusters, miR-200c-141, miR-200b-200a-429, and miR-183-96-182 were downregulated in human BCSCs, normal human and murine mammary stem/progenitor cells, and embryonal carcinoma cells. Expression of BMI1, a known regulator of stem cell self-renewal, was modulated by miR-200c. miR-200c inhibited the clonal expansion of breast cancer cells and suppressed the growth of embryonal carcinoma cells in vitro. Most importantly, miR-200c strongly suppressed the ability of normal mammary stem cells to form mammary ducts and tumor formation driven by human BCSCs in vivo. The coordinated downregulation of three microRNA clusters and the similar functional regulation of clonal expansion by miR-200c provide a molecular link that connects BCSCs with normal stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohei Shimono
- Stanford Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, 1050 Arastradero Road, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
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Lim E, Vaillant F, Wu D, Forrest NC, Pal B, Hart AH, Asselin-Labat ML, Gyorki DE, Ward T, Partanen A, Feleppa F, Huschtscha LI, Thorne HJ, Fox SB, Yan M, French JD, Brown MA, Smyth GK, Visvader JE, Lindeman GJ. Aberrant luminal progenitors as the candidate target population for basal tumor development in BRCA1 mutation carriers. Nat Med 2009; 15:907-13. [PMID: 19648928 DOI: 10.1038/nm.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1067] [Impact Index Per Article: 71.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/11/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Basal-like breast cancers arising in women carrying mutations in the BRCA1 gene, encoding the tumor suppressor protein BRCA1, are thought to develop from the mammary stem cell. To explore early cellular changes that occur in BRCA1 mutation carriers, we have prospectively isolated distinct epithelial subpopulations from normal mammary tissue and preneoplastic specimens from individuals heterozygous for a BRCA1 mutation. We describe three epithelial subsets including basal stem/progenitor, luminal progenitor and mature luminal cells. Unexpectedly, we found that breast tissue from BRCA1 mutation carriers harbors an expanded luminal progenitor population that shows factor-independent growth in vitro. Moreover, gene expression profiling revealed that breast tissue heterozygous for a BRCA1 mutation and basal breast tumors were more similar to normal luminal progenitor cells than any other subset, including the stem cell-enriched population. The c-KIT tyrosine kinase receptor (encoded by KIT) emerged as a key marker of luminal progenitor cells and was more highly expressed in BRCA1-associated preneoplastic tissue and tumors. Our findings suggest that an aberrant luminal progenitor population is a target for transformation in BRCA1-associated basal tumors .
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Affiliation(s)
- Elgene Lim
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Hu Y, Smyth GK. ELDA: extreme limiting dilution analysis for comparing depleted and enriched populations in stem cell and other assays. J Immunol Methods 2009; 347:70-8. [PMID: 19567251 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2009.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1459] [Impact Index Per Article: 97.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2008] [Revised: 06/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
ELDA is a software application for limiting dilution analysis (LDA), with particular attention to the needs of stem cell assays. It is the first limiting dilution analysis software to provide meaningful confidence intervals for all LDA data sets, including those with 0% or 100% responses. Other features include a test of the adequacy of the single-hit hypothesis, tests for frequency differences between multiple data sets, and the ability to take advantage of cases where the number of cells in the sample is counted exactly. A webtool at http://bioinf.wehi.edu.au/software/elda/ provides an easy user interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifang Hu
- Bioinformatics Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
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Reassessing the human mammary stem cell concept by modeling limiting dilution transplantation assays. Nat Med 2009; 15:602-4; author reply 604-5. [PMID: 19498366 DOI: 10.1038/nm0609-602b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Eirew P, Yu M, Brinkman R, Eaves CJ. Reply to 'Reassessing the human mammary stem cell concept by modeling limiting dilution transplantation assays'. Nat Med 2009. [DOI: 10.1038/nm0609-604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Otterbach F, Callies R, Adamzik M, Kimmig R, Siffert W, Schmid KW, Bankfalvi A. Aquaporin 1 (AQP1) expression is a novel characteristic feature of a particularly aggressive subgroup of basal-like breast carcinomas. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2009; 120:67-76. [DOI: 10.1007/s10549-009-0370-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Abstract
Emerging evidence from a variety of tissue types, including the mammary gland, suggests that normal stem and progenitor cells are the likely targets for malignant transformation, and that these transformed cells can function as cancer stem cells that drive tumour growth. In order to develop therapies that target these cancer stem cells, it is essential to determine the molecular mechanisms that regulate the growth and differentiation of these cells and their normal counterparts. To this end, a number of quantitative robust clonal assays have been developed that can detect the presence of human and mouse mammary stem and progenitor cells. These assays, when used in conjunction with cell-sorting strategies, have permitted the prospective isolation and characterization of a variety of cell types, including stem cells. Evidence to date indicates that these stem cells exhibit properties of basal mammary cells, possess extensive self-renewal properties, and are capable of generating a large number of phenotypically-distinct progenitor cells, many of which display characteristics of luminal cells. This review article will focus on the assays used to detect mammary stem and progenitor cells, some of the properties of these cells and their progeny and how they relate to the cancer stem cells that drive breast tumour growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Stingl
- Cancer Research UK, Cambridge Research Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK.
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Finkbeiner MR, Astanehe A, To K, Fotovati A, Davies AH, Zhao Y, Jiang H, Stratford AL, Shadeo A, Boccaccio C, Comoglio P, Mertens PR, Eirew P, Raouf A, Eaves CJ, Dunn SE. Profiling YB-1 target genes uncovers a new mechanism for MET receptor regulation in normal and malignant human mammary cells. Oncogene 2009; 28:1421-31. [DOI: 10.1038/onc.2008.485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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