Room-temperature ionic liquids: a novel versatile lubricant

Long-range electrostatic screening in ionic liquids

Electrolyte solutions with high concentrations of ions are prevalent in biological systems and energy storage technologies. Nevertheless, the high interaction free energy and long-range nature of electrostatic interactions makes the development of a general conceptual picture of concentrated electrolytes a significant challenge. In this work, we study ionic liquids, single-component liquids composed solely of ions, in an attempt to provide a novel perspective on electrostatic screening in very high concentration (nonideal) electrolytes. We use temperature-dependent surface force measurements to demonstrate that the long-range, exponentially decaying diffuse double-layer forces observed across ionic liquids exhibit a pronounced temperature dependence: Increasing the temperature decreases the measured exponential (Debye) decay length, implying an increase in the thermally driven effective free-ion concentration in the bulk ionic liquids. We use our quantitative results to propose a general model of long-range electrostatic screening in ionic liquids, where thermally activated charge fluctuations, either free ions or correlated domains (quasiparticles), take on the role of ions in traditional dilute electrolyte solutions. This picture represents a crucial step toward resolving several inconsistencies surrounding electrostatic screening and charge transport in ionic liquids that have impeded progress within the interdisciplinary ionic liquids community. More broadly, our work provides a previously unidentified way of envisioning highly concentrated electrolytes, with implications for diverse areas of inquiry, ranging from designing electrochemical devices to rationalizing electrostatic interactions in biological systems.

Synthesis, structure and near-infrared photoluminescence of hexanitratoneodymate ionic liquids

Five hexanitratoneodymate-based rare earth complexes () were synthesized using a straightforward method. Purple plate crystals of were isolated and the crystal structure was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction with respect to the coordination mode of the nitrate anion to the central Nd(iii) ion. (: monoclinic system P21/c, a = 15.9460(3) Å, b = 10.2457(6) Å, c = 33.323(3) Å, β = 91.8108(17)°, V = 3109.11(11) Å(3), Z = 4). The central Nd(iii) ion is surrounded by six bidentate nitrate ligands, with a major trend towards high symmetry of the [Nd(NO3)6](3-) anion as an icosahedron. Thermal properties were determined from differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) combined with thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) tests. Complexes are found to be room temperature liquids, and their excitation and emission spectra were recorded. These complexes exhibit intense near-infrared (NIR) luminescence emission, which originates from interconfigurational f-f transitions (4)F3/2→(4)IJ multiplet (J = 9/2-13/2). These liquid Nd(iii) complexes are of interest as potential NIR luminescent soft materials with high thermal stability.

Complementary Molecular Dynamics and X-ray Reflectivity Study of an Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquid at a Neutral Sapphire Interface

Understanding the molecular-level behavior of ionic liquids (ILs) at IL-solid interfaces is of fundamental importance with respect to their application in, for example, electrochemical systems and electronic devices. Using a model system, consisting of an imidazolium-based IL ([C2Mim][NTf2]) in contact with a sapphire substrate, we have approached this problem using a complementary combination of high-resolution X-ray reflectivity measurements and atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Our strategy enabled us to compare experimental and theoretically calculated reflectivities in a direct manner, thereby critically assessing the applicability of several force-field variants. On the other hand, using the best-matching MD description, we are able to describe the nature of the model IL-solid interface in appreciable detail. More specifically, we find that characteristic interactions between the surface hydroxyl groups and donor and acceptor sites on the IL constituents have a dominant role in inducing a multidimensional layering profile of the cations and anions.

Non-corrosive green lubricants: strengthened lignin–[choline][amino acid] ionic liquids interaction via reciprocal hydrogen bonding

Lignin and [choline][amino acid] ionic liquids with reciprocal hydrogen bonding in between have been demonstrated to be excellent non-corrosive green lubricants in boundary lubrication applications.

A multi-iodine doped strategy for ionic conductivity enhancement of crown ether functionalized ionic liquids

A novel crown ether functionalized ionic liquid has been designed, synthesized and characterized in detail.

The effect of lithium salt doping on the nanostructure of ionic liquids

In this work we report on the evolution of the structure of two model ionic liquid families, N-alkyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium (Pyr_1n-TFSI) and 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium (C_nMIm-TFSI) (n = 3, 4, 6 and 8) both containing the bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (TFSI) anion, upon the addition of LiTFSI using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS).

Halogen-free ionic liquids: effect of chelated orthoborate anion structure on their lubrication properties

The chelated orthoborate anions based ammonium ionic liquids are developed for non-corrosive, friction-reducing and antiwear properties.

Combined friction force microscopy and quantum chemical investigation of the tribotronic response at the propylammonium nitrate–graphite interface

The energetic origins of the variation in friction with potential at the propylammonium nitrate–graphite interface are revealed using friction force microscopy (FFM) in combination with quantum chemical simulations.

Hydrogen bonding and π–π interactions in imidazolium-chloride ionic liquid clusters

The importance of 1° and 2° hydrogen-bonding and anion–π⁺ interactions for ionic liquid structuring.

Phosphonium-organophosphate ionic liquids as lubricant additives: effects of cation structure on physicochemical and tribological characteristics

Our previous work suggested great potential for a phosphonium-organophosphate ionic liquid (IL) as an antiwear lubricant additive. In this study, a set of five ILs were carefully designed and synthesized, with identical organophosphate anions but dissimilar phosphonium cations, to allow systematic investigation of the effects of cation alkyl chain length and symmetry on physicochemical and tribological properties. Symmetric cations with shorter alkyl chains seem to increase the density and thermal stability due to closer packing. On the other hand, either higher cation symmetry or longer alkyl moieties induce a higher viscosity, though the viscosity index is dependent more on molecular mass than on symmetry. While a larger cation size generally increases an IL's solubility in nonpolar hydrocarbon oils, six-carbon seems to be the critical minimum alkyl chain length for high oil miscibility. Both the two ILs, that are mutually oil miscible, have demonstrated promising lubricating performance at 1.04% treat rate, though the symmetric-cation IL moderately outperformed the asymmetric-cation IL. Characterizations on the tribofilm formed by the best-performing symmetric-cation IL revealed the film thickness, nanostructure, and chemical composition. Results here provide fundamental insights for future molecular design in developing oil-soluble ILs as lubricant additives.

Ionic Liquid Adsorption and Nanotribology at the Silica-Oil Interface: Hundred-Fold Dilution in Oil Lubricates as Effectively as the Pure Ionic Liquid

The remarkable physical properties of ionic liquids (ILs) make them potentially excellent lubricants. One of the challenges for using ILs as lubricants is their high cost. In this article, atomic force microscopy (AFM) nanotribology measurements reveal that a 1 mol % solution of IL dissolved in an oil lubricates the silica surface as effectively as the pure IL. The adsorption isotherm shows that the IL surface excess need only be approximately half of the saturation value to prevent surface contact and effectively lubricate the sliding surfaces. Using ILs in this way makes them viable for large-scale applications.

Ionic liquids composed of phosphonium cations and organophosphate, carboxylate, and sulfonate anions as lubricant antiwear additives

Oil-soluble phosphonium-based ionic liquids (ILs) have recently been reported as potential ashless lubricant additives. This study is to expand the IL chemistry envelope and to achieve fundamental correlations between the ion structures and ILs' physiochemical and tribological properties. Here we present eight ILs containing two different phosphonium cations and seven different anions from three groups: organophosphate, carboxylate, and sulfonate. The oil solubility of ILs seems largely governed by the IL molecule size and structure complexity. When used as oil additives, the ranking of effectiveness in wear protection for the anions are organophosphate > carboxylate > sulfonate. All selected ILs outperformed a commercial ashless antiwear additive. Surface characterization from the top and the cross-section revealed the nanostructures and compositions of the tribo-films formed by the ILs. Some fundamental insights were achieved: branched and long alkyls improve the IL's oil solubility, anions of a phosphonium-phosphate IL contribute most phosphorus in the tribo-film, and carboxylate anions, though free of P, S, N, or halogen, can promote the formation of an antiwear tribo-film.

Preparation of catalytic materials using ionic liquids as the media and functional components

Ionic liquids (ILs) have attracted much attention due to their unique properties and wide application potential in a variety of fields. The unusual properties of ILs provide numerous opportunities to design and prepare arious advanced materials, including highly efficient catalysts. In recent years, synthesis of different kinds of catalytic materials and their applications in chemical reactions have been studied extensively and have become a very interesting area. Herein, we present a review on the synthesis of catalytic materials using ILs as the media and/or functional components; the important and widely investigated topics are discussed, including mainly metal nanocatalysts/IL, functional IL/support, metals or metal oxides/IL/support, polymeric ILs (PILs) catalysts, and the performances of catalytic systems are highlighted. An outlook for this interesting area is also given at the end of the article.

Halogen-free bis(imidazolium)/bis(ammonium)-di[bis(salicylato)borate] ionic liquids as energy-efficient and environmentally friendly lubricant additives

Bis(imidazolium)- and bis(ammonium)-di[bis(salicylato)borate] ionic liquids with variable alkyl chain and cyclic ring structures, were synthesized and then evaluated them as potential lubricant additives. The copper strip test results revealed noncorrosive properties of these ionic liquids. Introduction of halogen content in bis(imidazolium) ionic liquid by replacement of bis(salicylato)borate (BScB) anion with hexafluorophosphate (PF6(-)), severely corroded the copper strip. Thermogravimetric results showed that bis(imidazolium) ionic liquids exhibited higher thermal stability than bis(ammonium) ionic liquids owing to compact structure provided by imidazolium rings, higher intermolecular interactions, smaller free volume and low steric hindrance. The lubrication properties of these ionic liquids as additives to synthetic lubricant poly(ethylene) glycol (PEG 200) were evaluated for steel balls. Results showed that bis(ammonium)- and bis(imidazolium)-(BScB)2 ionic liquids as additives significantly reduced both friction coefficient and wear of PEG 200. The structure of cations, particularly the variation in substituted alkyl chain length monitored the degree of reduction in friction and wear. The excellent lubrication properties were attributed to the formation of adsorbed tribo-thin film and tribochemical product during the tribo-contact. Being halogen-, phosphorus-, and sulfur-free, these ionic liquids (a) protects contact surfaces from tribo-corrosive events, (b) reduces the friction and wear, and (c) keep environment green and clean.

Competitive pi interactions and hydrogen bonding within imidazolium ionic liquids

In this paper we have explored the structural and energetic landscape of potential π(+)-π(+) stacked motifs, hydrogen-bonding arrangements and anion-π(+) interactions for gas-phase ion pair (IP) conformers and IP-dimers of 1,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride, [C1C1im]Cl. We classify cation-cation ring stacking as an electron deficient π(+)-π(+) interaction, and a competitive anion on-top IP motif as an anion-donor π(+)-acceptor interaction. 21 stable IP-dimers have been obtained within an energy range of 0-126 kJ mol(-1). The structures have been found to exhibit a complex interplay of structural features. We have found that low energy IP-dimers are not necessarily formed from the lowest energy IP conformers. The sampled range of IP-dimers exhibits new structural forms that cannot be recovered by examining the ion-pairs alone, moreover the IP-dimers are recovering additional key features of the local liquid structure. Including dispersion is shown to impact both the relative energy ordering and the geometry of the IPs and IP-dimers, however the impact is found to be subtle and dependent on the underlying functional.

Highly conductive ionic liquids toward high-performance space-lubricating greases

Although ionic liquids (ILs) as a class of promising materials have a wide range of applications due to the excellent properties, their potential as space lubricants has been not systematically explored. Here two kinds of conductive alkyl imidazolium ILs greases were prepared using 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (LB106) and 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) amide (L-F106) as base oil and the polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) as thickener, with multiple-alkylated cyclopentane grease (MACs) as a comparison. Their chemical composition and tribological properties were investigated in detail under simulated space environment which is composed of high vacuum, high temperature and irradiation. Results show that the high conductive ILs greases not only possess good adaptive abilities to space environment and thermal stability but also provide excellent friction reducing and antiwear behaviors as well as high load carrying capacities. The unique physicochemical properties are attributed to a combination of special anions and cations, the excellent tribological properties are strongly dependent on a boundary protective film on the rubbing surfaces.

Surface structures of binary mixtures of imidazolium-based ionic liquids using high-resolution Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy

Surface structures of binary mixtures of imidazolium-based ionic liquids having a common anion (bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([TFSI]), namely [C2MIM]1-x[C10MIM]x[TFSI] (x = 0.5 and 0.1), are studied using high-resolution Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (HRBS) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (TOF-SIMS). Although both measurements show surface segregation of [C10MIM] the degrees of the segregation are different. The surface fraction xsurf of [C10MIM] is estimated to be 0.6 ± 0.05 and 0.18 ± 0.02 by HRBS for x = 0.5 and 0.1, respectively. On the other hand, TOF-SIMS indicates much stronger surface segregation, namely xsurf = 0.83 ± 0.03 and 0.42 ± 0.04 for x = 0.5 and 0.1, respectively. The observed discrepancy can be attributed to the difference in the probing depth between HRBS and TOF-SIMS. The observed surface segregation can be roughly explained in terms of surface tension.

3-Dimensional atomic scale structure of the ionic liquid-graphite interface elucidated by AM-AFM and quantum chemical simulations

In situ amplitude modulated atomic force microscopy (AM-AFM) and quantum chemical simulations are used to resolve the structure of the highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG)-bulk propylammonium nitrate (PAN) interface with resolution comparable with that achieved for frozen ionic liquid (IL) monolayers using STM. This is the first time that (a) molecular resolution images of bulk IL-solid interfaces have been achieved, (b) the lateral structure of the IL graphite interface has been imaged for any IL, (c) AM-AFM has elucidated molecular level structure immersed in a viscous liquid and (d) it has been demonstrated that the IL structure at solid surfaces is a consequence of both thermodynamic and kinetic effects. The lateral structure of the PAN-graphite interface is highly ordered and consists of remarkably well-defined domains of a rhomboidal superstructure composed of propylammonium cations preferentially aligned along two of the three directions in the underlying graphite lattice. The nanostructure is primarily determined by the cation. Van der Waals interactions between the propylammonium chains and the surface mean that the cation is enriched in the surface layer, and is much less mobile than the anion. The presence of a heterogeneous lateral structure at an ionic liquid-solid interface has wide ranging ramifications for ionic liquid applications, including lubrication, capacitive charge storage and electrodeposition.

Influence of alkyl chain length and anion species on ionic liquid structure at the graphite interface as a function of applied potential

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) force measurements elucidate the effect of cation alkyl chain length and the anion species on ionic liquid (IL) interfacial structure at highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) surfaces as a function of potential. Three ILs are examined: 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate ([HMIM] FAP), 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate ([EMIM] FAP), and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([EMIM] TFSA). The step-wise force-distance profiles indicate the ILs adopt a multilayered morphology near the surface. When the surface is biased positively or negatively versus Pt quasireference electrode, both the number of steps, and the force required to rupture each step increase, indicating stronger interfacial structure. At all potentials, push-through forces for [HMIM] FAP are the highest, because the long alkyl chain results in strong cohesive interactions between cations, leading to well-formed layers that resist the AFM tip. The most layers are observed for [EMIM] FAP, because the C2 chains are relatively rigid and the dimensions of the cation and anion are similar, facilitating neat packing. [EMIM] TFSA has the smallest push-through forces and fewest layers, and thus the weakest interfacial structure. Surface-tip attractive forces are measured for all ILs. At the same potential, the attractions are the strongest for [EMIM] TFSA and the weakest for [HMIM] FAP because the interfacial layers are better formed for the longer alkyl chain cation. This means interfacial forces are stronger, which masks the weak attractive forces.

Electrochemical and thermodynamic properties of Ln(III) (Ln = Eu, Sm, Dy, Nd) in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ionic liquid

The electrochemical behavior and thermodynamic properties of Ln(III) (Ln = Eu, Sm, Dy, Nd) were studied in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ionic liquid (BmimBr) at a glassy carbon (GC) electrode in the range of 293–338 K. The electrode reaction of Eu(III) was found to be quasi-reversible by the cyclic voltammetry, the reactions of the other three lanthanide ions were regarded as irreversible systems. An increase of the current intensity was obtained with the temperature increase. At 293 K, the cathodic peak potentials of −0.893 V (Eu(III)), −0.596 V (Sm(III)), −0.637 V (Dy(III)) and −0.641 V (Nd(III)) were found, respectively, to be assigned to the reduction of Ln(III) to Ln(II). The diffusion coefficients (D_o), the transfer coefficients (α) of Ln(III) (Ln = Eu, Sm, Dy, Nd) and the charge transfer rate constants (k_s) of Eu(III) were estimated. The apparent standard potential (E⁰*) and the thermodynamic properties of the reduction of Eu(III) to Eu(II) were also investigated.

Toxicity of ionic liquids: eco(cyto)activity as complicated, but unavoidable parameter for task-specific optimization

Rapid progress in the field of ionic liquids in recent decades led to the development of many outstanding energy-conversion processes, catalytic systems, synthetic procedures, and important practical applications. Task-specific optimization emerged as a sharpening stone for the fine-tuning of structure of ionic liquids, which resulted in unprecedented efficiency at the molecular level. Ionic-liquid systems showed promising opportunities in the development of green and sustainable technologies; however, the chemical nature of ionic liquids is not intrinsically green. Many ionic liquids were found to be toxic or even highly toxic towards cells and living organisms. In this Review, we show that biological activity and cytotoxicity of ionic liquids dramatically depend on the nature of a biological system. An ionic liquid may be not toxic for particular cells or organisms, but may demonstrate high toxicity towards another target present in the environment. Thus, a careful selection of biological activity data is a must for the correct assessment of chemical technologies involving ionic liquids. In addition to the direct biological activity (immediate response), several indirect effects and aftereffects are of primary importance. The following principal factors were revealed to modulate toxicity of ionic liquids: i) length of an alkyl chain in the cation; ii) degree of functionalization in the side chain of the cation; iii) anion nature; iv) cation nature; and v) mutual influence of anion and cation.

Interfacial structure and orientation of confined ionic liquids on charged quartz surfaces

Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations have been performed to study microscopic ionic structures and orientational preferences of absorbed [BMIM] cations and four paired anions ([BF₄], [PF₆], [TFO] and [TF₂N]) on quartz surfaces.

Halogen-free pyrrolidinium bis(mandelato)borate ionic liquids: some physicochemical properties and lubrication performance as additives to polyethylene glycol

Friction coefficients for a pyrrolidinium orthoborate ionic liquid as 3 wt% additive in PEG, neat PEG and 5W40.

Facile, high-yielding preparation of pyrrolidinium, piperidinium, morpholinium and 2,3-dihydro-1H-isoindolinium salts and ionic liquids from secondary amines

High yield and purity heterocyclic salts and ionic liquids can be obtained via the microwave irradiation of equimolar amounts of a secondary amine and an α,ω-dibromoalkane in water in the presence of K₂CO₃ followed by anion exchange.

In situ synthesis of copper nanoparticles within ionic liquid-in-vegetable oil microemulsions and their direct use as high efficient nanolubricants

Copper nanoparticles were in situ synthesized within ionic liquid-in-vegetable oil microemulsions. The as-prepared systems could be used as nanolubricants directly.

Shear dynamics of nanoconfined ionic liquids

The solid–liquid interfacial structure of ILs, determined by their molecular shape, results in different flow dynamics and friction under shear stress.

Quantitative and qualitative analysis of ionic solvation of individual ions of imidazolium based ionic liquids in significant solution systems by conductance and FT-IR spectroscopy

Exploration of significant interactions in eco-friendly RTILs in some liquid systems with a wide range of applications.

Ionic liquids as antiwear additives in base oils: influence of structure on miscibility and antiwear performance for steel on aluminum

The use of ionic liquids as additives to base oil for the lubrication of steel on aluminum was investigated. The miscibility and wear performance of various phosphonium, imidazolium, and pyrrolidinium ionic liquids in a range of polar and nonpolar base oils was determined. The structure and ion pairing of the ionic liquids was found to be important in determining their miscibility in the base oils. In wear tests, some of the miscible base oil/IL blends reduced the aluminum wear depth when compared to that found with the base oil alone. The nonpolar base oil/IL blends were able to withstand higher wear-test loads than the polar base oil/IL blends. At 10 N, as little as 0.01 mol/kg of IL, or 0.7-0.9 wt %, in the nonpolar base oils was enough to drastically reduce the wear depth on the aluminum. XPS analysis of the wear surfaces suggested that the adsorbing of the IL to the surface, where it can form low-shear layers and also react to form tribofilms, is important in reducing friction and wear. The largest reductions in wear at the highest load tested were found for a mineral oil/P6,6,6,14 (i)(C8)2PO2 blend.

Metal nanoparticle fluids with magnetically induced electrical switching properties

We report the successful preparation of solvent-free metal nanoparticle (NP) fluids with multiple-functionalities, such as rheological properties, magnetism, ionic conductivity, and electrical properties, allowing for facile synthesis and mass production. The gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) used in this study were synthesized using tetraoctylammonium bromide (TOABr) in toluene and then directly phase-transferred to solvent-free low-molecular-weight (Mw) imidazolium-type ionic liquid media containing thiol groups (i.e., IL-SH). Magnetic metal fluids (i.e., MIL-SH-AuNPs) were prepared by the addition of FeCl3 powder to metal fluids (i.e., IL-SH-AuNPs). These fluids showed relatively high ionic and electrical conductivities compared with those of conventional metal NP fluids based on organic ILs with high Mw. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that these fluids could be used as electric switches operated using an external magnetic field in organic media.

Ionic liquids behave as dilute electrolyte solutions

We combine direct surface force measurements with thermodynamic arguments to demonstrate that pure ionic liquids are expected to behave as dilute weak electrolyte solutions, with typical effective dissociated ion concentrations of less than 0.1% at room temperature. We performed equilibrium force-distance measurements across the common ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([C4mim][NTf2]) using a surface forces apparatus with in situ electrochemical control and quantitatively modeled these measurements using the van der Waals and electrostatic double-layer forces of the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory with an additive repulsive steric (entropic) ion-surface binding force. Our results indicate that ionic liquids screen charged surfaces through the formation of both bound (Stern) and diffuse electric double layers, where the diffuse double layer is comprised of effectively dissociated ionic liquid ions. Additionally, we used the energetics of thermally dissociating ions in a dielectric medium to quantitatively predict the equilibrium for the effective dissociation reaction of [C4mim][NTf2] ions, in excellent agreement with the measured Debye length. Our results clearly demonstrate that, outside of the bound double layer, most of the ions in [C4mim][NTf2] are not effectively dissociated and thus do not contribute to electrostatic screening. We also provide a general, molecular-scale framework for designing ionic liquids with significantly increased dissociated charge densities via judiciously balancing ion pair interactions with bulk dielectric properties. Our results clear up several inconsistencies that have hampered scientific progress in this important area and guide the rational design of unique, high-free-ion density ionic liquids and ionic liquid blends.

Encapsulated ionic liquids (ENILs): from continuous to discrete liquid phase

Encapsulated ionic liquid (ENIL) material was developed, consisting of ionic liquid (IL) introduced into carbon submicrocapsules. ENILs contain >85% w/w of IL but discretized in submicroscopic encapsulated drops, drastically increasing the surface contact area with respect to the neat fluid. ENIL materials were here tested for gas separation processes, obtaining a drastic increase in mass transfer rate.