Adverse effects of plasma transfusion

Evaluation of a fixed, weight-based dose of 3-factor prothrombin complex concentrate without adjunctive plasma following warfarin-associated intracranial hemorrhage

INTRODUCTION

Data regarding use of prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) for international normalization ratio (INR) reversal in warfarin-associated intracranial hemorrhage (wICH) is variable with regards to dosages, adjunctive agents, and product choice. In 2012, we implemented a fixed, weight-based [30 IU/kg] dosing protocol of 3-factor PCC (3PCC) utilizing a rapid infusion rate and no requirement for fresh frozen plasma (FFP) following factor product administration. We aimed to evaluate the impact of this protocol on immediate and delayed INR reversal in patients admitted with wICH in the absence of FFP co-administration.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of patients receiving 3PCC following wICH between January 1, 2012 and December 10, 2013. The primary objective was to determine the percentage of patients achieving goal INR (≤1.4) following 3PCC administration. Patients were excluded if their bleed was not intracranial in origin, received a dose outside of the specified protocol, or were given FFP as an adjunctive agent.

RESULTS

We included 35 patients with a mean presenting INR of 3.2 ± 1.3. Thirty patients (85.7%) achieved goal INR (≤1.4) following one dose of 3PCC. The mean INR after infusion of 3PCC was 1.3 ± 0.2. The median duration between 3PCC infusion and subsequent INR was 48.0 min (30-70.1 min). Vitamin K was utilized in 33 (94.3%) patients. No patient experienced a thromboembolic event within 7 days of 3PCC administration.

CONCLUSIONS

Fixed, weight-based dosing of 3PCC without adjunctive FFP resulted in high rates of complete INR reversal without significant adverse events.

Preparation of red blood cell concentrates and plasma units from whole blood held overnight using a hollow-fibre separation system

BACKGROUND

The ErySep system represents an alternative to centrifuge-based whole blood (WB) separation, using gravity and filtration through hollow-fibres (0·2 µm pore size) to produce red blood cell (RBC) and plasma components. The aim of this study was to characterise the quality of ErySep RBC and plasma units compared with standard products from WB held overnight.

METHODS/MATERIALS

Two ABO-compatible WB units (n = 24) were pooled and split to produce matched products. One of the WB units was separated into components using the ErySep system (ErySep; n = 12), whereas the other units were separated by centrifugation (control; n = 12). RBC units were stored at 2-6 °C and assessed for in vitro quality over 42 days of storage. Plasma was frozen at -30 °C and tested upon thawing.

RESULTS

Processing WB with the ErySep system took longer than controls. The ErySep RBC units were of an appropriate volume (307 ± 17 mL) and contained sufficient Hb (50 ± 2 g unit(-1) ). ErySep RBC components contained more microparticles relative to controls at expiry. The plasma volume, total protein, coagulation factor activity (fibrinogen, FV, FVIII) and number of microparticles was lower in the ErySep units compared with controls.

CONCLUSION

Following overnight hold of WB, the ErySep system was capable of producing RBC components that met specifications. However, the ErySep plasma components did not meet quality specifications.

Controversies in the use of fresh frozen plasma in critically ill small animal patients

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature supporting or discouraging the use of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) transfusion in critically ill patients.

DATA SOURCES

Human and animal publications were searched using PubMed without time limits and the following keywords were used: "fresh frozen plasma," "coagulopathy," "hypocoagulable state," "hypercoagulable states," and "critical illness."

HUMAN DATA SYNTHESIS

The commonly used tests of coagulation (eg, prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, international normalized ratio) are poorly predictive of clinical bleeding. FFP use in critically ill patients is unlikely to result in improved outcomes and may be associated with increased risks.

VETERINARY DATA SYNTHESIS

There is insufficient evidence to make definitive conclusions regarding the use of FFP in critically ill animals, but clinical studies are underway that may provide further data that clarify the optimal use of FFP in animals.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of FFP in critically ill patients remains controversial. In the absence of clinical bleeding or a risk for clinical bleeding associated with a planned procedure, treatment use of FFP is not recommended in human patients. There are insufficient data in critically ill animals to enable formulation of recommendations. Further research is warranted in dogs and cats to establish evidence-based guidelines.

The international normalized ratio does not reflect bleeding risk in esophageal variceal hemorrhage

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The international normalized ratio (INR) has not been validated as a predictor of bleeding risk in cirrhotics. The aim of this study was to determine whether elevation in the INR correlated with risk of esophageal variceal hemorrhage and whether correction of the INR prior to endoscopic therapy affects failure to control bleeding.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patient records were retrospectively reviewed from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2010. Cases were cirrhotics admitted to the hospital due to bleeding esophageal varices. Controls were cirrhotics with a history of non-bleeding esophageal varices admitted with ascites or encephalopathy. All variceal bleeders were treated with octreotide, antibiotics, and band ligation. Failure to control bleeding was defined according to the Baveno V criteria.

RESULTS

We analyzed 74 cases and 74 controls. The mean INR at presentation was lower in those with bleeding varices compared to non-bleeders (1.61 vs 1.74, P = 0.03). Those with bleeding varices had higher serum sodium (136.1 vs 133.8, P = 0.02), lower hemoglobin (9.59 vs 11.0, P < 0.001), and lower total bilirubin (2.47 vs 5.50, P < 0.001). Multivariable logistic regression showed total bilirubin to inversely correlate with bleeding (OR = 0.74). Bleeders received a mean of 1.14 units of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) prior to endoscopy (range 0-11 units). Of the 14 patients (20%) with failure to control bleeding, median INR (1.8 vs 1.5, P = 0.02) and median units of FFP transfused (2 vs 0, P = 0.01) were higher than those with hemostasis after the initial endoscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

The INR reflects liver dysfunction, not bleeding risk. Correction of INR with FFP has little effect on hemostasis.

Transfusion transmitted diseases in perioperative and intensive care settings

Patients in the perioperative period and intensive care unit are commonly exposed to blood transfusion (BT). They are at increased risk of transfusion transmitted bacterial, viral and protozoal diseases. The risk of viral transmission has decreased steadily, but the risk of bacterial transmission remains same. Bacterial contamination is more in platelet concentrates than in red cells and least in plasma. The chances of sepsis, morbidity and mortality depend on the number of transfusions and underlying condition of the patient. Challenges to safe BT continue due to new emerging pathogens and various management problems. Strategies to restrict BT, optimal surgical and anaesthetic techniques to reduce blood loss and efforts to develop transfusion alternatives should be made. Literature search was performed using search words/phrases blood transfusion, transfusion, transfusion transmitted diseases, transfusion transmitted bacterial diseases, transfusion transmitted viral diseases, transfusion transmitted protozoal diseases or combinations, on PubMed and Google Scholar from 1990 to 2014.

Cryoprecipitate therapy

Cryoprecipitate, originally developed as a therapy for patients with antihaemophilic factor deficiency, or haemophilia A, has been in use for almost 50 yr. However, cryoprecipitate is no longer administered according to its original purpose, and is now most commonly used to replenish fibrinogen levels in patients with acquired coagulopathy, such as in clinical settings with haemorrhage including cardiac surgery, trauma, liver transplantation (LT), or obstetric haemorrhage. Cryoprecipitate is a pooled product that does not undergo pathogen inactivation, and its administration has been associated with a number of adverse events, particularly transmission of blood-borne pathogens and transfusion-related acute lung injury. As a result of these safety concerns, along with emerging availability of alternative fibrinogen preparations, cryoprecipitate has been withdrawn from use in a number of European countries. Compared with the plasma from which it is prepared, cryoprecipitate contains a high concentration of coagulation factor VIII, coagulation factor XIII, and fibrinogen. Cryoprecipitate is usually licensed by regulatory authorities for the treatment of hypofibrinogenaemia, and recommended for supplementation when plasma fibrinogen levels decrease below 1 g litre(-1); however, this threshold is empiric and is not based on solid clinical evidence. Consequently, there is uncertainty over the appropriate dosing and optimal administration of cryoprecipitate, with some guidelines from professional societies to guide clinical practice. Randomized, controlled trials are needed to determine the clinical efficacy of cryoprecipitate, compared with the efficacy of alternative preparations. These trials will allow the development of evidence-based guidelines in order to inform physicians and guide clinical practice.

Current treatment for venom-induced consumption coagulopathy resulting from snakebite

Venomous snakebite is considered the single most important cause of human injury from venomous animals worldwide. Coagulopathy is one of the commonest important systemic clinical syndromes and can be complicated by serious and life-threatening haemorrhage. Venom-induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC) is the commonest coagulopathy resulting from snakebite and occurs in envenoming by Viperid snakes, certain elapids, including Australian elapids, and a few Colubrid (rear fang) snakes. Procoagulant toxins activate the clotting pathway, causing a broad range of factor deficiencies depending on the particular procoagulant toxin in the snake venom. Diagnosis and monitoring of coagulopathy is problematic, particularly in resource-poor countries where further research is required to develop more reliable, cheap clotting tests. MEDLINE and EMBASE up to September 2013 were searched to identify clinical studies of snake envenoming with VICC. The UniPort database was searched for coagulant snake toxins. Despite preclinical studies demonstrating antivenom binding toxins (efficacy), there was less evidence to support clinical effectiveness of antivenom for VICC. There were no placebo-controlled trials of antivenom for VICC. There were 25 randomised comparative trials of antivenom for VICC, which compared two different antivenoms (ten studies), three different antivenoms (four), two or three different doses or repeat doses of antivenom (five), heparin treatment and antivenom (five), and intravenous immunoglobulin treatment and antivenom (one). There were 13 studies that compared two groups in which there was no randomisation, including studies with historical controls. There have been numerous observational studies of antivenom in VICC but with no comparison group. Most of the controlled trials were small, did not use the same method for assessing coagulopathy, varied the dose of antivenom, and did not provide complete details of the study design (primary outcomes, randomisation, and allocation concealment). Non-randomised trials including comparison groups without antivenom showed that antivenom was effective for some snakes (e.g., Echis), but not others (e.g., Australasian elapids). Antivenom is the major treatment for VICC, but there is currently little high-quality evidence to support effectiveness. Antivenom is not risk free, and adverse reactions can be quite common and potentially severe. Studies of heparin did not demonstrate it improved outcomes in VICC. Fresh frozen plasma appeared to speed the recovery of coagulopathy and should be considered in bleeding patients.

Risk factors for transfusion-associated complications and nonsurvival in dogs receiving packed red blood cell transfusions: 211 cases (2008-2011)

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the number, volume, or age of transfused packed RBC units; volume of other blood products; or pretransfusion PCV was a risk factor for transfusion-associated complications or nonsurvival in dogs.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

ANIMALS

211 client-owned dogs receiving stored packed RBC transfusions.

PROCEDURES

Information collected or calculated from the medical record of each dog included the total number, volume, and dose of packed RBC units; mean age of packed RBC units; number of packed RBC units > 14 days old; age of oldest packed RBC unit; volume and dose of other blood products used; pretransfusion PCV; acute patient physiologic and laboratory evaluation score; transfusion-associated complications; and outcome.

RESULTS

The dose (mL/kg) of other blood products transfused was a risk factor for transfusion-associated complications (OR, 1.03; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01 to 1.05). The pretransfusion PCV (OR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.21) and dose of packed RBCs administered (OR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.07) were risk factors for nonsurvival. Age of transfused packed RBC units was not identified as a risk factor for transfusion-associated complications or nonsurvival, but the study was statistically underpowered to detect this finding.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Administration of larger doses of other non-packed RBC blood products was a risk factor for transfusion-associated complications, and a higher pretransfusion PCV and larger dose of packed RBCs administered were risk factors for nonsurvival. Prospective randomized studies are needed to determine whether conservative transfusion strategies will reduce transfusion-associated complications and improve outcome in dogs.

Cardiopulmonary Bypass in a Patient with Factor XII Deficiency

The performance of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) in the factor XII-deficient patient is challenging in that the normal method for monitoring anticoagulation is ineffective as a result of an impaired contact activation system. We report the case of a factor XII-deficient patient who underwent surgical revascularization on CPB. His factor XII level was replenished with fresh-frozen plasma immediately before surgery. This management strategy lowered the baseline activated clotting time (ACT) to near normal, providing a meaningful ACT value for CPB. Factor XII is also a key component in the fibrinolytic system and its deficiency is associated with increased thrombosis. Because the factor XII level quickly returns to baseline postoperatively, perioperative care must include strategies to avoid postoperative thromboembolic events.

Transfusion reactions in pediatric compared with adult patients: a look at rate, reaction type, and associated products

BACKGROUND

The majority of reports on transfusion reactions address adult patients. Less is known about the types, incidence, and other clinical details of transfusion reactions in pediatric populations. Furthermore, to our knowledge, there have been no previous reports directly comparing these aspects between adults and pediatric patient populations to assess if there are differences.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Between the period of January 1, 2011, and February 1, 2013, all reported adult and pediatric transfusion reactions at Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC) were evaluated by transfusion medicine clinical service. The information was subsequently shared with the hemovigilance database. Data provided to hemovigilance included age, sex, blood product associated with the reaction, severity of the reaction, and the type of transfusion reactions. These were collated with hospital and blood bank information system-acquired data on overall admission and product transfusion.

RESULTS

A total of 133,671 transfusions were performed at VUMC during the study period including 20,179 platelet (PLT) transfusions, 31,605 plasma transfusions, 79,933 red blood cell (RBC) transfusions, and 2154 cryoprecipitate transfusions. Over the same period, 108 pediatric and 277 adult transfusion reactions were recorded. This corresponds to an incidence of 6.2 reactions per 1000 transfusions within the pediatric (age < 21) population and an incidence of 2.4 reactions per 1000 transfusions within the adult population. In both adult and pediatric populations, transfusion reactions were most commonly associated with PLT, followed by RBC, and then plasma transfusions. Within the pediatric population, subset analysis identified multiple differences when compared to the adult population, including an increased incidence of allergic transfusion reactions (2.7/1000 vs. 1.1/1000, p < 0.001), febrile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions (1.9/1000 vs. 0.47/1000, p < 0.001), and hypotensive transfusion reactions (0.29/1000 vs. 0.078/1000, p < 0.05). Interestingly, while the reaction incidence was the same between sexes in adults, in pediatric patients, reactions were more common in male patients (7.9/1000 pediatric males vs. 4.3/1000 pediatric females, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge this is the first study to provide detailed comparisons of acute transfusion reactions to all blood products between pediatric and adult populations at a single institution and supported by a single transfusion service and culture. Collectively these data provide insight into pediatric transfusion reactions and demonstrate a general increase in the incidence of transfusion reactions within the pediatric compared to adult population.

Transfusion associated circulatory overload

Transfusion associated circulatory overload (TACO) is an established, but grossly under diagnosed and underreported complication of blood transfusion. We present the case of a 46-year-old diabetic and hypertensive patient admitted to our hospital for recurrent episodes of urinary retention. Over initial 3 days of the admission, the patient received multiple units of packed red blood cells (RBC) and fresh frozen plasma, uneventfully. However, the patient developed signs and symptoms suggestive of TACO with only small amount of the 4(th) unit of RBC. The patient had to be shifted to the Intensive Care Unit for further management of this complication. Etiology of TACO is more complex than a mere circulatory overload and is still not completely understood. TACO leads to a prolonged hospital stay and morbidity in the patients developing this complication. TACO thus needs to be suspected in patients at risk for this complication.

Freeze-dried plasma at the point of injury: from concept to doctrine

While early plasma transfusion for the treatment of patients with ongoing major hemorrhage is widely accepted as part of the standard of care in the hospital setting, logistic constraints have limited its use in the out-of-hospital setting. Freeze-dried plasma (FDP), which can be stored at ambient temperatures, enables early treatment in the out-of-hospital setting. Point-of-injury plasma transfusion entails several significant advantages over currently used resuscitation fluids, including the avoidance of dilutional coagulopathy, by minimizing the need for crystalloid infusion, beneficial effects on endothelial function, physiological pH level, and better maintenance of intravascular volume compared with crystalloid-based solutions. The Israel Defense Forces Medical Corps policy is that plasma is the resuscitation fluid of choice for selected, severely wounded patients and has thus included FDP as part of its armamentarium for use at the point of injury by advanced life savers, across the entire military. We describe the clinical rationale behind the use of FDP at the point-of-injury, the drafting of the administration protocol now being used by Israel Defense Forces advanced life support providers, the process of procurement and distribution, and preliminary data describing the first casualties treated with FDP at the point of injury. It is our hope that others will be able to learn from our experience, thus improving trauma casualty care around the world.

Reversal of target-specific oral anticoagulants

Target-specific oral anticoagulants (TSOACs) provide safe and effective anticoagulation for the prevention and treatment of thrombosis in a variety of clinical settings by interfering with the activity of thrombin (dabigatran) or factor Xa (rivaroxaban, apixaban, edoxaban, betrixaban). Although TSOACs have practical advantages over vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), there are currently no antidotes to reverse their anticoagulant effect. Herein we summarize the available evidence for TSOAC reversal using nonspecific and specific reversal agents. We discuss important limitations of existing evidence, which is derived from studies in human volunteers, animal models and in vitro experiments. Studies evaluating the safety and efficacy of reversal agents on clinical outcomes such as bleeding and mortality in patients with TSOAC-associated bleeding are needed.

[Respiratory complications after transfusion]

Respiratory complications of blood transfusion have several possible causes. Transfusion-Associated Circulatory Overload (TACO) is often the first mentioned. Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury (TRALI), better defined since the consensus conference of Toronto in 2004, is rarely mentioned. French incidence is low. Non-hemolytic febrile reactions, allergies, infections and pulmonary embolism are also reported. The objective of this work was to determine the statistical importance of the different respiratory complications of blood transfusion. This work was conducted retrospectively on transfusion accidents in six health centers in Champagne-Ardenne, reported to Hemovigilance between 2000 and 2009 and having respiratory symptoms. The analysis of data was conducted by an expert committee. Eighty-three cases of respiratory complications are found (316,864 blood products). We have counted 26 TACO, 12 TRALI (only 6 cases were identified in the original investigation of Hemovigilance), 18 non-hemolytic febrile reactions, 16 cases of allergies, 5 transfusions transmitted bacterial infections and 2 pulmonary embolisms. Six new TRALI were diagnosed previously labeled TACO for 2 of them, allergy and infection in 2 other cases and diagnosis considered unknown for the last 2. Our study found an incidence of TRALI 2 times higher than that reported previously. Interpretation of the data by a multidisciplinary committee amended 20% of diagnoses. This study shows the imperfections of our system for reporting accidents of blood transfusion when a single observer analyses the medical records.

Prothrombin Complex Concentrate Accelerates International Normalized Ratio Reversal and Diminishes the Extension of Intracranial Hemorrhage in Geriatric Trauma Patients

Warfarin therapy increases the incidence intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), especially in the geriatric population. Timely reversal of international normalized ratio (INR) is integral in the management of these patients for whom fresh frozen plasma (FFP) with vitamin K is the standard of treatment. We hypothesized that implementing a protocol that used prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) would reverse INR values more swiftly and decrease the amount of FFP administered. In November 2011, a protocol was implemented for administering PCC to the geriatric population on warfarin admitted for life-threatening bleeds. These patients received 25 IU/kg ideal body weight of a three-factor PCC (Profilnine SD) if their INR was over 1.5 or greater. FFP was given if follow-up INR revealed an INR of 1.5 or greater. Retrospectively the data from 29 patients who received PCC were compared with a historical control group of 34 patients. Protocol use resulted in a significantly faster INR reversal (PCC: 151.6 ± 84.3 minutes vs control: 485.0 ± 321 minutes; P < 0.001), time to achieve an INR less than 1.5 (PCC: 484 ± 242 minutes vs control: 971 ± 1208 minutes; P = 0.036), and less FFP administered (PCC: 1.3 ± 1.0 vs control:3.3 ± 1.5; P < 0.001). PCC patients had a decreased incidence of progression of their ICH (PCC: 17.2% vs control: 44.2%; P = 0.031). Rapid reversal of coagulopathy in geriatric patients on warfarin is vital to limit the extent of ICH. PCC allows a much more rapid reversal than standard treatment with only FFP and vitamin K. Adopting such a protocol is associated not only with a more rapid reversal and less FFP use, but also less patients went on to extend their head bleeds.

Use of plasma in the management of central nervous system bleeding: evidence-based consensus recommendations

INTRODUCTION

Central nervous system (CNS) hemorrhage is a potentially life-threatening condition, especially in patients with acquired coagulopathy. In this setting, treatment of CNS bleeding includes hemostatic therapy to replenish coagulation factors. There is currently a debate over the hemostatic efficacy of plasma in many clinical settings, alongside increasing concern about transfusion-associated adverse events. Despite these concerns, plasma is widely used. Moreover, plasma transfusion practice is variable and there is currently no uniform approach to treatment of traumatic, surgical or spontaneous CNS hemorrhage. This study addresses the need for guidance on the indications and potential risks of plasma transfusion in these settings. An Expert Consensus Panel was convened to develop recommendations guiding the use of plasma to treat bleeding and/or coagulopathy associated with CNS hemorrhage. The panel did not advise on the best treatment available but rather proposed recommendations to be used in the formulation of local procedures to support emergency physicians in their decision-making process.

METHODS

Evidence was systematically gathered from the literature and rated using methods established by the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. The evidence was used to develop graded consensus recommendations, which are presented along with the evidence-based rationale for each in this report.

RESULTS

Sixty-five articles were identified covering both vitamin K antagonist-anticoagulation reversal and treatment of bleeding/coagulopathy in non-anticoagulated patients. Recommendations were then developed in four clinical scenarios within each area, and agreed on unanimously by all members of the panel.

CONCLUSION

The Panel considered plasma to be reasonable therapy for CNS hemorrhage requiring urgent correction of coagulopathy, although physicians should be prepared for potential cardiopulmonary complications, and evidence suggests that alternative therapies have superior risk-benefit profiles. Plasma could not be recommended in the absence of hemorrhage or coagulopathy. Consideration of the absolute risks and benefits of plasma therapy before transfusion is imperative.

Transfusion guidelines: when to transfuse

Transfusion of blood and blood components has been a routine practice for more than half a century. The rationale supporting this practice is that replacement of blood loss should be beneficial for the patient. This assumption has constituted the underpinning of transfusion medicine for many decades. Only over the past 20 years, we have seen a more concerted effort to answer very basic questions regarding the value of transfusion therapy. An assessment of the value of transfusion based on well-designed and appropriately powered randomized, controlled trials is the first step in optimizing transfusion practices. Systematic reviews provide the second step by building the knowledge base necessary to assess the impact of transfusion practice on patient outcomes. The third step is the development of clinical practice guidelines, and this occurs when systematic reviews are interpreted by individuals with expertise in transfusion medicine. Such guidelines are typically supported by professional organizations and/or health authorities. Implementation of clinical practice guidelines can be challenging, especially in an area as heterogeneous as transfusion medicine. However, clinical practice guidelines are necessary for the practice of evidence-based medicine, which optimizes patient care and improves patient outcomes. This review focuses on clinical practice guidelines for transfusion of three blood components: RBCs, platelets and plasma. In addition, we provide the approach used to implement clinical practice guidelines at our own institution.

Transfusion medicine in small animals

This article reviews the use of transfusion medicine in veterinary medicine and discusses current research regarding donor screening and component therapy. Typing and crossmatching methodologies are discussed. Available components, potential uses, and controversies in treatment are also discussed.

Does plasma transfusion portend pulmonary dysfunction? A tale of two ratios

BACKGROUND

An unresolved concern regarding resuscitation in the setting of massive hemorrhage is potential lung injury from the transfusion of relatively more plasma-rich components. However, the association between plasma-to-packed red blood cell (PRBC) ratio and subsequent pulmonary dysfunction remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of plasma/PRBC on PaO2-to-FIO2 (P/F) ratio in the setting of massive transfusion (MT).

METHODS

During a 5.5-year period, prospective data were collected on trauma patients who underwent MT, defined as 10 or more units of PRBC transfusion by completion of hemorrhage control. Deaths within 48 hours of arrival were excluded. Acute lung injury (ALI) and adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) were defined as P/F ratio of less than 300 and less than 200 at 48 hours, respectively. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed to determine variables significantly associated with P/F ratio.

RESULTS

A total of 199 patients met inclusion criteria; 159 (80%) developed ALI, and 105 (53%) developed ARDS. ALI and ARDS were both associated with subsequent mortality: ARDS at 24% versus no ARDS at 10% (p < 0.05) and ALI at 21% versus no ALI at 2.5% (p < 0.05). Paradoxically, patients with P/F ratio of 300 or greater were found to have received more plasma (5.6 U vs. 4.3 U, p < 0.05) and higher plasma-to-PRBC ratio (1:2 vs. 1:3, p < 0.05) at completion of hemorrhage control. Stepwise multiple regression analysis, however, identified age (p < 0.001) and chest Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) score (p = 0.04), but not plasma/PRBC (p = 0.10), to be independent determinants of P/F ratio at 48 hours.

CONCLUSION

In this cohort of MT patients who survived beyond the first 48 hours, pulmonary dysfunction developed in the majority and was associated with a 10-fold higher risk of subsequent death. However, plasma-to-RBC ratio achieved during hemorrhage control had neither a positive nor a negative impact on subsequent P/F ratio. In fact, only unalterable patient factors including age and severity of thoracic injury were associated with subsequent P/F ratio.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic study, level III.

A randomized controlled trial of fresh frozen plasma for treating venom-induced consumption coagulopathy in cases of Australian snakebite (ASP-18)

BACKGROUND

Venom-induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC) is a major effect of snake envenoming.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether fresh frozen plasma (FFP) given after antivenom resulted in more rapid correction of coagulation.

PATIENTS/METHODS

This was a multicenter open-label randomized controlled trial in patients with VICC of FFP vs. no FFP within 4 h of antivenom administration. Patients (> 2 years) recruited to the Australian snakebite project with VICC (International Normalized Ratio [INR] > 3) were eligible. Patients were randomized 2 : 1 to receive FFP or no FFP. The primary outcome was the proportion with an INR of < 2 at 6 h after antivenom administration. Secondary outcomes included time from antivenom administration to discharge, adverse effects, major hemorrhage, and death.

RESULTS

Of 70 eligible patients, 65 consented to be randomized: 41 to FFP, and 24 to no FFP. Six hours after antivenom administration, more patients randomized to FFP had an INR of < 2 (30/41 [73%] vs. 6/24 [25%]; absolute difference, 48%; 95% confidence interval 23-73%; P = 0.0002). The median time from antivenom administration to discharge was similar (34 h, range 14-230 h vs. 39 h, range 14-321 h; P = 0.44). Seven patients developed systemic hypersensitivity reactions after antivenom administration - two mild and one severe (FFP arm), and three mild and one severe (no FFP). One serious adverse event (intracranial hemorrhage and death) occurred in an FFP patient with pre-existing hypertension, who was hypertensive on admission, and developed a headache 6 h after FFP administration. Post hoc analysis showed that the median time from bite to FFP administration was significantly shorter for non-responders to FFP than for responders (4.7 h, interquartile range [IQR] 4.2-6.7 h vs. 7.3 h, IQR 6.1-8 h; P = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

FFP administration after antivenom administration results in more rapid restoration of clotting function in most patients, but no decrease in discharge time. Early FFP administration (< 6-8 h) post-bite is less likely to be effective.

Fluid overload is associated with increases in length of stay and hospital costs: pooled analysis of data from more than 600 US hospitals

Background

Fluid overload, including transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO), is a serious complication of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) transfusion. The incidence of fluid overload is underreported and its economic impact is unknown. An evaluation of fluid overload cases in US hospitals was performed to assess the impact of fluid overload on length and cost of hospital stay.

Study design and methods

Retrospective analysis was performed using a clinical and economic database covering >600 US hospitals. Data were collected for all inpatients discharged during 2010 who received ≥1 unit FFP during hospitalization. Incidence of fluid overload was determined through International Classification of Diagnosis (ICD-9) codes. Multivariate regression analysis was performed for primary outcome measures: hospital length of stay (LOS) and total hospital costs.

Results

Data were analyzed for 129,839 FFP-transfused patients, of whom 4,138 (3.2%) experienced fluid overload (including TACO). Multivariate analysis, adjusting for baseline characteristics, found that increased LOS and hospital costs were independently associated with fluid overload. Patients diagnosed with fluid overload had longer mean LOS (12.9 days versus 10.0 days; P < 0.001) and higher mean hospital cost per visit ($46,644 versus $32,582; P < 0.001) compared with patients without fluid overload.

Conclusion

For a population of US inpatients who received FFP during hospitalization, fluid overload was associated with a 29% increase in LOS and a $14,062 increase in hospital costs per visit. These findings suggest that the incidence of fluid overload in the general population is greater than historically reported. A substantial economic burden may be associated with fluid overload in the US.