201
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Tong M, Viall CA, Chamley LW. Antiphospholipid antibodies and the placenta: a systematic review of their in vitro effects and modulation by treatment. Hum Reprod Update 2014; 21:97-118. [PMID: 25228006 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmu049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) are a family of auto-antibodies that are associated with an increased risk of recurrent miscarriage, intrauterine growth restriction and preterm birth. The placenta is a major target of aPL and it is likely that these antibodies promote pregnancy morbidity by affecting trophoblast function. Numerous studies have investigated the effect of aPL on trophoblast function in vitro. However, different trophoblast models and a variety of culture conditions have been employed, resulting in a myriad of different reported findings. This review systematically summarized those published studies that have investigated the effect of aPL on trophoblast function in vitro. In addition, the reported effects of pharmacological treatment on trophoblast function in the presence of aPL were also systematically reviewed. METHODS PubMed, Scopus, Embase and Web of Science databases were searched using the keywords 'placenta OR trophoblast' AND 'antiphospholipid antibody OR antiphospholipid syndrome' up to 25 April 2014. Studies were excluded based on the absence of appropriate controls. The effects of aPL on trophoblast proliferation, death, syncytialization, invasion, hormone production, cytokine production, coagulation and complement activation were recorded. The effects of different treatments on the function of trophoblasts in the presence of aPL were also recorded. RESULTS A total of 1071 records were retrieved from the four databases. After removing duplicates, the titles and abstracts of 529 articles were reviewed. Of those, 48 articles were read and relevant experimental results were extracted from 47 articles. CONCLUSIONS This systematic review provides an overview of all the studies performed to date on the effects of aPL on trophoblast function in vitro. There is considerable support for aPL decreasing trophoblast viability, syncytialization and invasion in vitro. Some work has also suggested that aPL may affect the production of hormones and signalling molecules by trophoblasts, and may stimulate coagulation and complement activation in vitro. Current reports of the in vitro effects of therapeutic treatments on trophoblast function in the presence of aPL are inconclusive. This systematic review has highlighted many gaps in our knowledge of how aPL work and may direct future research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tong
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - C A Viall
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - L W Chamley
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
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202
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Breen KA, Kilpatrick DC, Swierzko AS, Cedzynski M, Hunt BJ. Lack of association of serum mannose/mannan binding lectin or ficolins with complement activation in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2014; 25:644-5. [PMID: 25083730 DOI: 10.1097/mbc.0000000000000060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karen A Breen
- aDepartment of Thrombosis and Vascular Biology, Guys and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London bScottish National Blood Transfusion Service, National Science Laboratory, Edinburgh cInstitute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz, Poland
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203
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Gysler SM, Mulla MJ, Stuhlman M, Sfakianaki AK, Paidas MJ, Stanwood NL, Gariepy A, Brosens JJ, Chamley LW, Abrahams VM. Vitamin D Reverses aPL-induced Inflammation and LMWH-induced sFlt-1 Release by Human Trophoblast. Am J Reprod Immunol 2014; 73:242-50. [DOI: 10.1111/aji.12301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan M. Gysler
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
| | - Melissa J. Mulla
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
| | - Meredith Stuhlman
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
| | - Anna K. Sfakianaki
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
| | - Michael J. Paidas
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
| | - Nancy L. Stanwood
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
| | - Aileen Gariepy
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
| | - Jan J. Brosens
- Division of Reproductive Health; Clinical Sciences Research Laboratories; Warwick Medical School; Coventry UK
| | - Lawrence W. Chamley
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; The University of Auckland; Auckland New Zealand
| | - Vikki M. Abrahams
- Department of Obstetrics; Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences; Yale School of Medicine, New Haven CT USA
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204
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Watanabe H, Sugimoto M, Asano T, Sato S, Suzuki E, Takahashi A, Katakura K, Kobayashi H, Ohira H. Relationship of complement activation route with clinical manifestations in Japanese patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: A retrospective observational study. Mod Rheumatol 2014; 25:205-9. [DOI: 10.3109/14397595.2014.933998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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205
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Lood C, Tydén H, Gullstrand B, Sturfelt G, Jönsen A, Truedsson L, Bengtsson AA. Platelet activation and anti-phospholipid antibodies collaborate in the activation of the complement system on platelets in systemic lupus erythematosus. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99386. [PMID: 24922069 PMCID: PMC4055750 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Anti-phospholipid (aPL) antibodies are important contributors to development of thrombosis in patients with the autoimmune rheumatic disease systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The underlying mechanism of aPL antibody-mediated thrombosis is not fully understood but existing data suggest that platelets and the complement system are key components. Complement activation on platelets is seen in SLE patients, especially in patients with aPL antibodies, and has been related to venous thrombosis and stroke. The aim of this study was to investigate if aPL antibodies could support classical pathway activation on platelets in vitro as well as in SLE patients. Furthermore, we investigated if complement deposition on platelets was associated with vascular events, either arterial or venous, when the data had been adjusted for traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Finally, we analyzed if platelet complement deposition, both C1q and C4d, was specific for SLE. We found that aPL antibodies supported C4d deposition on platelets in vitro as well as in SLE patients (p = 0.001 and p<0.05, respectively). Complement deposition on platelets was increased in SLE patients when compared with healthy individuals (p<0.0001). However, high levels of C4d deposition and a pronounced C1q deposition were also seen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic sclerosis. In SLE, C4d deposition on platelets was associated with platelet activation, complement consumption, disease activity and venous (OR = 5.3, p = 0.02), but not arterial, thrombosis, observations which were independent of traditional cardiovascular risk factors. In conclusion, several mechanisms operate in SLE to amplify platelet complement deposition, of which aPL antibodies and platelet activation were identified as important contributors in this investigation. Complement deposition on platelets was identified as a marker of venous, but not arterial thrombosis, in SLE patients independently of traditional risk factors and aPL antibodies. Further studies are needed to elucidate the role of complement deposition on platelets in development of venous thrombosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Lood
- Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Section of Rheumatology, Lund University and Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Helena Tydén
- Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Section of Rheumatology, Lund University and Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
| | - Birgitta Gullstrand
- Department of Laboratory Medicine Lund, Section of Microbiology, Immunology and Glycobiology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Sturfelt
- Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Section of Rheumatology, Lund University and Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
| | - Andreas Jönsen
- Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Section of Rheumatology, Lund University and Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
| | - Lennart Truedsson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine Lund, Section of Microbiology, Immunology and Glycobiology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Anders A. Bengtsson
- Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Section of Rheumatology, Lund University and Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
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206
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Xiao S, Lu X, Li X, Zhang L, Bao S, Zhao A. Study on the pathogenesis of autoimmune-type recurrent spontaneous abortion by establishing a new mouse model. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2014; 178:84-8. [PMID: 24792667 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2014.03.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2014] [Revised: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To establish a new mouse model for autoimmune-type recurrent spontaneous abortion (AI-RSA) and demonstrate the potential role of intrauterine immunization with β2GP-1-like antigen in AI-RSA, we performed an intrauterine injection of human β2GP-1 in BALB/c mice and unrelated protein, adjuvants, and normal saline (NS) as controls. The mean number of embryos implanted (MNEI), embryo loss rate (ELR), mean embryo bulk (MEB), and mean placental weight (MPW) were analyzed. Compared with the control mice, BALB/c mice injected with human β2GP-1 showed increased anti-β2GP-1 and MPW. Moreover, BALB/c mice immunized with human β2GP-1 exhibited hypercoagulability and vascular thrombus formation in the placenta. Electron microscopy confirmed the existence of platelet aggregation, mitochondrial swelling, and endothelial cell necrosis in the placentas of BALB/c mice immunized with human β2GP-1. These finding indicated that intrauterine immunization with β2GP-1 successfully induced AI-RSA in mice. Increased anti-β2GP-1 antibody could independently induce hypercoagulability, vascular endothelial injury, and vascular thrombus formation in the placenta, which led to AI-RSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijin Xiao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, PR China
| | - Xuefeng Lu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, PR China
| | - Xiaoqiong Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Huaian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Jiangsu 223002, PR China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Changning Maternity and Infant Health Hospital, Shanghai 200051, PR China
| | - Shimin Bao
- Experimental Animal Center of Shanghai, The Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai 201615, PR China
| | - Aimin Zhao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, PR China.
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207
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A non-complement-fixing antibody to β2 glycoprotein I as a novel therapy for antiphospholipid syndrome. Blood 2014; 123:3478-87. [PMID: 24642748 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2013-11-537704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A single-chain fragment variable (scFv) recognizing β2-glycoprotein 1 (β2GPI) from humans and other species was isolated from a human phage display library and engineered to contain an IgG1 hinge-CH2-CH3 domain. The scFv-Fc directed against β2GPI domain I-induced thrombosis and fetal loss, thus mimicking the effect of antibodies from patients with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). Complement is involved in the biological effect of anti-β2GPI scFv-Fc, as demonstrated by its ability to promote in vitro and in vivo complement deposition and the failure to induce vascular thrombosis in C6-deficient rats and fetal loss in C5-depleted mice. A critical role for complement was also supported by the inability of the CH2-deleted scFv-Fc to cause vessel occlusion and pregnancy failure. This antibody prevented the pathological effects of anti-β2GPI antibodies from APS patients and displaced β2GPI-bound patient antibodies. The CH2-deleted antibody represents an innovative approach potentially useful to treat APS patients refractory to standard therapy.
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208
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de Jesus GR, Agmon-Levin N, Andrade CA, Andreoli L, Chighizola CB, Porter TF, Salmon J, Silver RM, Tincani A, Branch DW. 14th International Congress on Antiphospholipid Antibodies Task Force report on obstetric antiphospholipid syndrome. Autoimmun Rev 2014; 13:795-813. [PMID: 24650941 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Pregnancy morbidity is one of the clinical manifestations used for classification criteria of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). During the 14th International Congress on Antiphospholipid Antibodies (aPL), a Task Force with internationally-known experts was created to carry out a critical appraisal of the literature available regarding the association of aPL with obstetric manifestations present in actual classification criteria (recurrent early miscarriage, fetal death, preeclampsia and placental insufficiency) and the quality of the evidence that treatment(s) provide benefit in terms of avoiding recurrent adverse obstetric outcomes. The association of infertility with aPL and the effectiveness of the treatment of patients with infertility and positive aPL was also investigated. This report presents current knowledge and limitations of published studies regarding pregnancy morbidity, infertility and aPL, identifying areas that need better investigative efforts and proposing how critical flaws could be avoided in future studies, as suggested by participants of the Task Force. Except for fetal death, there are limitations in the quality of the data supporting the association of aPL with obstetric complications included in the current APS classification criteria. Recommended treatments for all pregnancy morbidity associated to APS also lack well-designed studies to confirm its efficacy. APL does not seem to be associated with infertility and treatment does not improve the outcomes in infertile patients with aPL. In another section of the Task Force, Dr. Jane Salmon reviewed complement-mediated inflammation in reproductive failure in APS, considering new therapeutic targets to obstetric APS (Ob APS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme R de Jesus
- Department of Obstetrics, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Nancy Agmon-Levin
- The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Aviv, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Carlos A Andrade
- Instituto de Pesquisa Clinica Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Laura Andreoli
- Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Spedali Civili, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Cecilia B Chighizola
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Immunorheumatological Research Laboratory, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
| | - T Flint Porter
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of UT, Salt Lake City, USA; Intermountain Healthcare, Salt Lake City, USA
| | - Jane Salmon
- Hospital For Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, NY, USA; Kirkland Center for Lupus Research, NY, USA; Lupus and APS Center of Excellence, NY, USA
| | - Robert M Silver
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of UT, Salt Lake City, USA
| | - Angela Tincani
- Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Spedali Civili, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - D Ware Branch
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of UT, Salt Lake City, USA; Intermountain Healthcare, Salt Lake City, USA
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209
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Greer IA, Brenner B, Gris JC. Antithrombotic treatment for pregnancy complications: which path for the journey to precision medicine? Br J Haematol 2014; 165:585-99. [PMID: 24593333 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.12813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2013] [Accepted: 01/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Haemostatic and vascular biology mechanisms appear to play an important role in the pathogenesis of placenta-mediated pregnancy complications. Although low-dose aspirin (LDA) has a modest effect in preventing preeclampsia, antithrombotic interventions, LDA and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) have not definitively proven their effectiveness in women with placenta-mediated pregnancy complications selected by previous pregnancy outcome alone. Given the heterogeneous aetiology of placenta-mediated pregnancy complications, it is critical to stratify patients according to maternal and fetal characteristics and disease mechanisms rather than simply by pregnancy outcome, such as miscarriage. Such stratification could identify those who could benefit from antithrombotic interventions in pregnancy. We lack data on genome-wide association studies, biomarkers and trials of interventions applied to specific homogeneous populations. Future studies should focus on elaborating different disease mechanisms and examining antithrombotic interventions in specific and more homogeneous groups, such as thrombophilic women with well-characterized placenta-mediated pregnancy complications, stratified by disease severity and pathological findings. Because of fetal safety concerns with new anticoagulants, the intervention should focus on heparins alone or in combination with LDA. Thus, placenta-mediated pregnancy complications deserve precision medicine, defining disease by mechanism rather than outcome with interventions focused on a more personalized approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A Greer
- Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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210
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211
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Cartin-Ceba R, Peikert T, Ashrani A, Keogh K, Wylam ME, Ytterberg S, Specks U. Primary Antiphospholipid Syndrome-Associated Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2014; 66:301-10. [DOI: 10.1002/acr.22109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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212
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Erkan D, Aguiar CL, Andrade D, Cohen H, Cuadrado MJ, Danowski A, Levy RA, Ortel TL, Rahman A, Salmon JE, Tektonidou MG, Willis R, Lockshin MD. 14th International Congress on Antiphospholipid Antibodies: task force report on antiphospholipid syndrome treatment trends. Autoimmun Rev 2014; 13:685-96. [PMID: 24468415 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS) is characterized by vascular thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity occurring in patients with persistent antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). The primary objective of the APS Treatment Trends Task Force, created as part of the 14th International Congress on aPL, was to systematically review the potential future treatment strategies for aPL-positive patients. The task force chose as future clinical research directions: a) determining the necessity for controlled clinical trials in venous thromboembolism with the new oral direct thrombin or anti-factor Xa inhibitors pending the results of the ongoing rivaroxaban in APS (RAPS) trial, and designing controlled clinical trials in other forms of thrombotic APS; b) systematically analyzing the literature as well as aPL/APS registries, and creating specific registries for non-warfarin/heparin anticoagulants; c) increasing recruitment for an ongoing primary thrombosis prevention trial, and designing secondary thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity prevention trials with hydroxychloroquine; d) determining surrogate markers to select patients for statin trials; e) designing controlled studies with rituximab and other anti-B-cell agents; f) designing mechanistic and clinical studies with eculizumab and other complement inhibitors; and g) chemically modifying peptide therapy to improve the half-life and minimize immunogenicity. The report also includes recommendations for clinicians who consider using these agents in difficult-to-manage aPL-positive patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doruk Erkan
- Hospital For Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Cassyanne L Aguiar
- Hospital For Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Danieli Andrade
- Department of Rheumatology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Hannah Cohen
- Department of Hematology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust and University College London, London UK
| | | | - Adriana Danowski
- Department of Rheumatology, Hospital Federal dos Servidores do Estado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Roger A Levy
- Department of Rheumatology, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Thomas L Ortel
- Hemostasis and Thrombosis Center, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Anisur Rahman
- Department of Hematology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust and University College London, London UK
| | - Jane E Salmon
- Hospital For Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Maria G Tektonidou
- First Department of Medicine, University of Athens School of Medicine, Athens, Greece
| | - Rohan Willis
- Division of Rheumatology,University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Michael D Lockshin
- Hospital For Special Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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213
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Abstract
Thromboembolic disorders continue to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality, resulting in an increased need for anticoagulant therapy. In recent years, new anticoagulant drugs have been developed at a rapid pace, prompted by the recognition of many undesirable properties of currently used agents, and by a greater knowledge of the active enzymatic sites of clotting factors. Furthermore, the structure of a thrombus is better understood, so that newer drugs can inhibit thrombin or Factor Xa not only on the surface of a thrombus, as in the case of heparin, but also the fibrin-bound thrombin or Factor Xa within the thrombus. These agents are usually small molecules synthesized on the basis of their inhibition of specific active sites in the respective coagulation factors. They possess many improved characteristics, such as greater efficacy and safety, oral administration, reliable pharmacokinetics, less need for laboratory monitoring and minimal interactions with other drugs and diet. Prominent among these are lepuridin (Refludan, Pfizer), fondaparinux (Arixtra, Sanofi-Synthelabo) and ximelagatran (Exanta, Astra Zeneca). However, these new drugs are still far from fulfilling the desired objectives. Most of them possess some but not all of the needed properties. Furthermore, many do not have specific antidotes for immediate reversal of their pharmacologic actions, and all are much more costly than conventional agents. Development of newer agents with properties closer to that of the ideal drug remains a challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hau C Kwaan
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, 333 East Huron Street, Chicago, IL 60011-3008, USA.
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214
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Albert CR, Schlesinger WJ, Viall CA, Mulla MJ, Brosens JJ, Chamley LW, Abrahams VM. Effect of hydroxychloroquine on antiphospholipid antibody-induced changes in first trimester trophoblast function. Am J Reprod Immunol 2013; 71:154-64. [PMID: 24325143 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Women with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) are at risk for pregnancy complications. Antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) alter trophoblast function by triggering an inflammatory cytokine response; modulating angiogenic factor secretion; and inhibiting migration. While patients with APS are often treated with hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), its effect on trophoblast function is poorly understood. METHOD OF STUDY A human first trimester trophoblast cell line was treated with or without antihuman β2GPI mAbs in the presence or absence of HCQ. Supernatants were analyzed by ELISA. Cell migration was measured using a colormetric assay. RESULTS Antiphospholipid antibodies-induced trophoblast IL-8, IL-1 β, PlGF, and sEndoglin secretion were not altered by HCQ. aPL-induced inhibition of trophoblast migration was partially reversed by HCQ, even though HCQ significantly increased secretion of pro-migratory IL-6 to greater than baseline. aPL-induced upregulation of TIMP2 appears to inhibit trophoblast migration; the inability of HCQ to prevent aPL-induced TIMP2 may explain why migration was only partially restored. CONCLUSION Hydroxychloroquine reversed the aPL-inhibition of trophoblast IL-6 secretion and partially limited aPL-inhibition of cell migration. Thus, some form of combination therapy that includes HCQ may be beneficial to pregnant APS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline R Albert
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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215
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Xie H, Sheng L, Zhou H, Yan J. The role of TLR4 in pathophysiology of antiphospholipid syndrome-associated thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity. Br J Haematol 2013; 164:165-76. [PMID: 24180619 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.12587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongxiang Xie
- Department of Cardiology; Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University; Zhenjiang China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory and Haematology; School of Medical Science and Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu University; Zhenjiang China
| | - Liangju Sheng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory and Haematology; School of Medical Science and Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu University; Zhenjiang China
| | - Hong Zhou
- Department of Cardiology; Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University; Zhenjiang China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory and Haematology; School of Medical Science and Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu University; Zhenjiang China
| | - Jinchuan Yan
- Department of Cardiology; Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University; Zhenjiang China
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216
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Abstract
The generation of knock out mice urged researchers, not always voluntarily, to newly define developmental functions of the gene knocked out. Among others, this has led to the establishment of the field of developmental haemostasis. The work in this field identified a role of coagulation proteases and their regulators independent of haemostasis in the embryo proper. Rather, coagulation proteases regulate cellular function through receptor dependent signalling in the embryo proper, both within and outside the vasculature. Likewise, coagulation proteases modulate placental development independent of haemostasis through mechanisms involving the activation of maternal myeloid derived cells. The following review summarizes the current knowledge in the field of developmental haemostasis and pinpoints open questions within this evolving field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammed Kashif
- Department of Internal Medicine I and Clinical Chemistry, University of Heidelberg, INF 410, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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217
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Punnialingam S, Khamashta MA. Duration of anticoagulation treatment for thrombosis in APS: is it ever safe to stop? Curr Rheumatol Rep 2013; 15:318. [PMID: 23494857 DOI: 10.1007/s11926-013-0318-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is an auto-immune thrombophilia for which anti-thrombotic medication is necessary for long-term management to reduce thrombotic risk or pregnancy morbidity. Choosing the type of pharmacological treatment, i.e. the intensity and duration of anticoagulation, depends on the severity of an individual's APS and the risk of bleeding. This article reviews the current literature on anticoagulation therapy, provides recommendations on when to initiate therapy, and suggests possible alternatives for optimisation of management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinthiya Punnialingam
- Department of General Medicine, Guy's and St Thomas' Hospital, Westminster Bridge Rd, London, UK.
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218
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Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage and Libman-Sacks endocarditis as a manifestation of possible primary antiphospholipid syndrome. J Clin Rheumatol 2013; 19:79-83. [PMID: 23340096 DOI: 10.1097/rhu.0b013e318278c577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the presence of circulating autoantibodies against phospholipid-binding plasma proteins, leading to an increased risk of thrombosis and pregnancy loss. The most common manifestation of lung disease in APS is pulmonary embolism, which may often be the presenting symptom. We present a 30-year-old man with probable primary APS (with no history of thromboses) presenting with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, an uncommon presentation. He was also found to have severe mitral valve regurgitation and during valve replacement surgery had cardiac vegetations compatible with a presentation of Libman-Sacks endocarditis. There are only 21 other reported cases of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage occurring as a result of APS. This is the first case of Libman-Sacks endocarditis in the setting of probable APS and alveolar hemorrhage.Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage should be considered as a nonthrombotic manifestation of APS, even in the absence of known thromboses, and may be the presenting symptom.
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219
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Obstetrical antiphospholipid syndrome: from the pathogenesis to the clinical and therapeutic implications. Clin Dev Immunol 2013; 2013:159124. [PMID: 23983765 PMCID: PMC3745904 DOI: 10.1155/2013/159124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is an acquired thrombophilia with clinical manifestations associated with the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) in patient plasma. Obstetrical APS is a complex entity that may affect both mother and fetus throughout the entire pregnancy with high morbidity. Clinical complications are as various as recurrent fetal losses, stillbirth, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), and preeclampsia. Pathogenesis of aPL targets trophoblastic cells directly, mainly via proapoptotic, proinflammatory mechanisms, and uncontrolled immunomodulatory responses. Actual first-line treatment is limited to low-dose aspirin (LDA) and low-molecular weight heparin (LMWH) and still failed in 30% of the cases. APS pregnancies should be a major field in obstetrical research, and new therapeutics are still in progress.
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Vass A, Süveges G, Érces D, Nógrády M, Varga G, Földesi I, Futakuchi M, Imai M, Okada N, Okada H, Boros M, Kaszaki J. Inflammatory activation after experimental cardiac tamponade. Eur Surg Res 2013; 51:1-13. [PMID: 23859935 DOI: 10.1159/000352089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/PURPOSE Cardiac tamponade is a medical emergency situation associated with a high rate of life-threatening complications, even after immediate interventions. Our aim was to characterize the acute inflammatory consequences of this event in a clinically relevant large animal model. METHODS Cardiac tamponade was induced for 60 min in anesthetized, ventilated and thoracotomized minipigs by intrapericardial fluid administration, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) being maintained in the interval of 40-45 mm Hg (n = 8). A further group (n = 7) served as sham-operated control. The global macrohemodynamics, including the right- and left-heart end-diastolic volumes (RHEDV and LHEDV), the pulmonary vascular resistance index (PVRI) and the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) flow, were monitored for 240 min, and the intestinal microcirculatory changes (pCO2 gap) were evaluated by indirect tonometry. Blood samples were taken for the determination of cardiac troponin T and vasoactive inflammatory mediators, including histamine, nitrite/nitrate, big-endothelin, superoxide and high-mobility group box protein-1 levels in association with intestinal leukocyte and complement activation. RESULTS The cardiac tamponade induced significant decreases in MAP, cardiac output, LHEDV and SMA flow, while the PVRI and the pCO2 gap increased significantly. After the removal of fluid from the pericardial sac, the MAP and the LHEDV were decreased, while the PVRI and the pCO2 gap remained elevated when compared with those in the sham-operated group. In the posttamponade period, the abrupt release of inflammatory mediators was accompanied by a significant splanchnic leukocyte accumulation and complement activation. CONCLUSIONS The macrocirculatory and splanchnic microcirculatory disturbances were accompanied by a significant proinflammatory reaction; endothelin and the complement system may be significant components of the inflammatory cascade that is activated in this porcine model of pericardial tamponade.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Vass
- Institute of Surgical Research, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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221
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A role for uric acid and the Nalp3 inflammasome in antiphospholipid antibody-induced IL-1β production by human first trimester trophoblast. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65237. [PMID: 23762324 PMCID: PMC3675211 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Women with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) are at risk of recurrent pregnancy loss and obstetrical disorders, such as preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) directly target the placenta by binding beta2-glycoprotein I (β2GPI) expressed on the trophoblast. We recently demonstrated in human first trimester trophoblast cells that anti-β2GPI antibodies (Abs) induce the secretion of IL-1β in a Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-dependent manner. IL-1β secretion requires processing of pro-IL-1β and this is mediated by the inflammasome, a complex of Nalp3, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC) and caspase-1. The objective of this study was to determine if aPL induce IL-1β production in trophoblast via the inflammasome. Using a human first trimester trophoblast cell line, we demonstrated that a mouse anti-β2GPI mAb and human polyclonal aPL-IgG induce IL-1β processing and secretion, which was partially blocked upon caspase-1 inhibition. Nalp3 and ASC knockdown also attenuated anti-β2GPI Ab-induced IL-1β secretion. Furthermore, aPL stimulated the production of uric acid in a TLR4-dependent manner; and inhibition of uric acid prevented aPL-induced IL-1β production by the trophoblast. These findings demonstrate that aPL, via TLR4 activation, induce a uric acid response in human trophoblast, which in turn activates the Nalp3/ASC inflammasome leading to IL-1β processing and secretion. This novel mechanism may account for the inflammation at the maternal-fetal interface, which causes placental dysfunction and increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcome in patients with APS.
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222
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Lillegard KE, Johnson AC, Lojovich SJ, Bauer AJ, Marsh HC, Gilbert JS, Regal JF. Complement activation is critical for placental ischemia-induced hypertension in the rat. Mol Immunol 2013; 56:91-7. [PMID: 23685261 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2013.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Preeclampsia is a major obstetric problem defined by new-onset hypertension and proteinuria associated with compromised placental perfusion. Although activation of the complement system is increased in preeclampsia compared to normal pregnancy, it remains unclear whether excess complement activation is a cause or consequence of placental ischemia. Therefore, we hypothesized that complement activation is critical for placental ischemia-induced hypertension. We employed the reduced utero-placental perfusion pressure (RUPP) model of placental ischemia in the rat to induce hypertension in the third trimester and evaluated the effect of inhibiting complement activation with a soluble recombinant form of an endogenous complement regulator, human complement receptor 1 (sCR1; CDX-1135). On day 14 of a 21-day gestation, rats received either RUPP or Sham surgery and 15 mg/kg/day sCR1 or saline intravenously on days 14-18. Circulating complement component 3 decreased and complement activation product C3a increased in RUPP vs. Sham (p<0.05), indicating complement activation had occurred. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) measured on day 19 increased in RUPP vs. Sham rats (109.8±2.8 mmHg vs. 93.6±1.6 mmHg). Treatment with sCR1 significantly reduced elevated MAP in RUPP rats (98.4±3.6 mmHg, p<0.05) and reduced C3a production. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) decreased in RUPP compared to Sham rats, and the decrease in VEGF was not affected by sCR1 treatment. Thus, these studies have identified a mechanistic link between complement activation and the pregnancy complication of hypertension apart from free plasma VEGF and have identified complement inhibition as a potential treatment strategy for placental ischemia-induced hypertension in preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Lillegard
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School Duluth, Duluth, MN 55812, USA.
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223
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Di Simone N, D'Ippolito S, Marana R, Di Nicuolo F, Castellani R, Pierangeli SS, Chen P, Tersigni C, Scambia G, Meroni PL. Antiphospholipid Antibodies Affect Human Endometrial Angiogenesis: Protective Effect of a Synthetic Peptide (TIFI) Mimicking the Phospholipid Binding Site of β2glycoprotein I. Am J Reprod Immunol 2013; 70:299-308. [DOI: 10.1111/aji.12130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Di Simone
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore; Rome; Italy
| | - Silvia D'Ippolito
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore; Rome; Italy
| | | | - Fiorella Di Nicuolo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore; Rome; Italy
| | - Roberta Castellani
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore; Rome; Italy
| | - Silvia S. Pierangeli
- Department of Internal Medicine; University of Texas Medical Branch; Galveston; TX; USA
| | - Pojen Chen
- University of California; Los Angeles; CA; USA
| | - Chiara Tersigni
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore; Rome; Italy
| | - Giovanni Scambia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore; Rome; Italy
| | - Pier Luigi Meroni
- Division of Rheumatology; Institute G. Pini; University of Milan; Istituto Auxologico Italiano; Milan; Italy
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224
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Antiphospholipid syndrome: From pathogenesis to novel immunomodulatory therapies. Autoimmun Rev 2013; 12:752-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2012.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2012] [Accepted: 12/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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225
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Ballanti E, Perricone C, Greco E, Ballanti M, Di Muzio G, Chimenti MS, Perricone R. Complement and autoimmunity. Immunol Res 2013; 56:477-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s12026-013-8422-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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226
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Ricklin D, Lambris JD. Complement in immune and inflammatory disorders: pathophysiological mechanisms. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2013; 190:3831-8. [PMID: 23564577 PMCID: PMC3623009 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Although acute or chronic inflammation is a common component of many clinical disorders, the underlying processes can be highly distinct. In recent years, the complement system has been associated with a growing number of immunological and inflammatory conditions that include degenerative diseases, cancer, and transplant rejection. It becomes evident that excessive activation or insufficient control of complement activation on host cells can cause an immune imbalance that may fuel a vicious cycle between complement, inflammatory cells, and tissue damage that exacerbates clinical complications. Although the exact involvement of complement needs to be carefully investigated for each disease, therapeutic modulation of complement activity emerges as an attractive target for upstream inhibition of inflammatory processes. This review provides an update about the functional and collaborative capabilities of complement, highlights major disease areas with known complement contribution, and indicates the potential for complement as a focal point in immunomodulatory strategies for treating inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ricklin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - John D. Lambris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
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227
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Denny KJ, Coulthard LG, Finnell RH, Callaway LK, Taylor SM, Woodruff TM. Elevated complement factor C5a in maternal and umbilical cord plasma in preeclampsia. J Reprod Immunol 2013; 97:211-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2012.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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228
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Kwak-Kim J, Agcaoili MSL, Aleta L, Liao A, Ota K, Dambaeva S, Beaman K, Kim JW, Gilman-Sachs A. Management of women with recurrent pregnancy losses and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Am J Reprod Immunol 2013; 69:596-607. [PMID: 23521391 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) have been associated with recurrent pregnancy losses (RPL) and other obstetrical complications. The diagnostic criteria for the classical antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS) have been utilized for the detection of obstetrical APS in women with RPL. However, laboratory findings and immunopathology of obstetrical APS are significantly different from those of classical APS. In addition, many women with RPL who have positive aPL do not have symptoms consistent with the current APS criteria. The induction of a proinflammatory immune response from trophoblasts and complement activation by aPL rather than thromboembolic changes has been reported as a major immunopathological feature of obstetrical APS. Heparin treatment has been reported to be effective in prevention of early pregnancy loss with APS but not for the late pregnancy loss or complications. The complex effects of heparin may explain the limited efficacy of heparin treatment in RPL. New diagnostic criteria for obstetrical APS are needed urgently, and new therapeutic approaches should be explored further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Kwak-Kim
- Reproductive Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Chicago Medical School at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Vernon Hills, IL 60061, USA.
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229
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Barnett ANR, Asgari E, Chowdhury P, Sacks SH, Dorling A, Mamode N. The use of eculizumab in renal transplantation. Clin Transplant 2013; 27:E216-29. [DOI: 10.1111/ctr.12102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Nicholas R. Barnett
- Renal and Transplant Department; Guy's Hospital, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust; London; UK
| | - Elham Asgari
- MRC Centre for Transplantation; King's College London; UK
| | - Paramit Chowdhury
- Renal and Transplant Department; Guy's Hospital, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust; London; UK
| | | | | | - Nizam Mamode
- Renal and Transplant Department; Guy's Hospital, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust; London; UK
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230
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Affiliation(s)
- Bill Giannakopoulos
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Immunology, and Sexual Health, St. George Hospital, Kogarah, Sydney, NSW 2217, Australia.
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231
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Gonzalez JM, Romero R, Girardi G. Comparison of the mechanisms responsible for cervical remodeling in preterm and term labor. J Reprod Immunol 2013; 97:112-9. [PMID: 23312455 PMCID: PMC3581722 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2012.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Revised: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 07/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms of term and preterm cervical remodeling is essential to prevent prematurity. Is preterm cervical remodeling caused by the same mechanisms that cause cervical remodeling at term, and are these changes accelerated in time? This question has been pondered by obstetricians seeking strategies to prevent preterm labor for many years. Mice represent an informative model of preterm birth. Thus, in this review we discuss the recent findings from mouse models that identify and characterize the initiators and cellular effectors of cervical remodeling at term and preterm labor/delivery. These studies suggest that similarities and differences exist between term and preterm cervical remodeling. Complement is an initiator or mediator in preterm labor/delivery, but is not involved in the physiological process that leads to term delivery. Therefore, complememt constitutes a specific and selective target for potentially preventing preterm delivery, thus improving neonatal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- JM Gonzalez
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayns State University, Detroit, MI
| | - R Romero
- Perinatology Reserch Branch, National Institutes of Helath, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD and Detroit, MI, USA
| | - G Girardi
- The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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232
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Heparin rescues factor V Leiden-associated placental failure independent of anticoagulation in a murine high-risk pregnancy model. Blood 2013; 121:2127-34. [PMID: 23325830 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2012-08-448209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) is being tested as an experimental drug for improving pregnancy outcome in women with inherited thrombophilia and placenta-mediated pregnancy complications, such as recurrent pregnancy loss. The role of thrombotic processes in these disorders remains unproven, and the issue of antithrombotic prophylaxis is intensely debated. Using a murine model of factor V Leiden-associated placental failure, we show that treatment of the mother with LMWH allows placental development to proceed and affords significant protection from fetal loss. Nonetheless, the therapeutic effect of LMWH is not replicated by anticoagulation; fondaparinux and a direct Xa inhibitor, C921-78, achieve anticoagulation similar to LMWH but produce little or no improvement in pregnancy outcome. Genetic attenuation of maternal platelet aggregation is similarly ineffective. In contrast, even a partial loss of thrombin sensitivity of maternal platelets protects pregnancies. Neonates born from these pregnancies are growth retarded, suggesting that placental function is only partially restored. The placentae are smaller but do not reveal any evidence of thrombosis. Our data demonstrate an anticoagulation-independent role of LMWH in protecting pregnancies and provide evidence against the involvement of thrombotic processes in thrombophilia-associated placental failure. Importantly, thrombin-mediated maternal platelet activation remains central in the mechanism of placental failure.
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233
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Erkan D, Lockshin MD. Antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Immunol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7234-3691-1.00074-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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234
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Shapira I, Andrade D, Allen SL, Salmon JE. Brief report: induction of sustained remission in recurrent catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome via inhibition of terminal complement with eculizumab. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 64:2719-23. [PMID: 22354668 DOI: 10.1002/art.34440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (CAPS) is characterized by histopathologic evidence of small vessel thrombosis, dysfunction of multiple organs occurring over a short period of time, and laboratory confirmation of the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). Treatment of CAPS focuses on anticoagulation therapy and on removal of aPL that promote thrombosis by activating endothelial cells, monocytes, and platelets. Studies in animal models support the hypothesis that a more targeted intervention, such as complement inhibition, may be an effective means to prevent aPL-induced thrombosis. Herein we describe use of an inhibitor of complement activation to treat CAPS that was refractory to conventional therapy. METHODS Our patient was a young man who had recurrent CAPS characterized by multiple arterial thromboses in large and small vessels despite maximal anticoagulation, immunosuppression, and plasma exchange therapy. We treated him with eculizumab, an anti-C5 monoclonal antibody that blocks activation of terminal complement. RESULTS Administration of eculizumab, at doses that blocked complement activity, aborted acute progressive thrombotic events, reversed thrombocytopenia, and was associated with no further clinical episodes of thrombosis during >3 years of therapy. CONCLUSION This first report of the use and clinical efficacy of eculizumab, an inhibitor of complement activation, in the treatment of CAPS demonstrates both the importance of complement (specifically, terminal complement components) in the pathogenesis of CAPS and the therapeutic benefit of complement inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iuliana Shapira
- Hofstra North Shore-LIJ School of Medicine, Hempstead, New York, USA
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235
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Abstract
Triple positivity (positive Lupus Anticoagulant, anticardiolipin and anti β2-glycoptrotein I antibodies) identifies the pathogenic autoantibody (anti Domain I of β2-glycoptroteinI) that is present in patients with definite Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS). This is supported by the fact that aβ2GPI antibodies obtained by affinity purification in these patients possess LA activity. Moreover, patients and carriers of this profile carry a much higher risk of thrombosis and pregnancy loss than APS patients with positivity for only one of the tests. Thus, very different risk categories exist among patients with APS as well as among carriers of aPL. Clinical studies and interventional trials should first take these high risk subjects into consideration.
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236
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Treatment of refractory obstetric antiphospholipid syndrome: the state of the art and new trends in the therapeutic management. Lupus 2012; 22:6-17. [DOI: 10.1177/0961203312465782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Objective To date, there are no reliable data regarding the actual treatment received by women with refractory obstetric antiphospholipid syndrome (OAPS). The aim of this study was to assess current clinical evidence and new trends in the treatment of refractory OAPS. Methods A non-systematic but comprehensive literature search using relevant keywords was made to identify relevant articles published in English from different computerized databases: PubMed (Medline), Google Scholar electronic database search and The Cochrane Library, from January 2000 to March 2012. Studies on the treatment of poor obstetric outcomes in women with OAPS were included. Prospective randomized clinical trials, cohort studies, reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analysis were retrieved. Results A total of 130 articles were finally selected for this review, including 17 randomized clinical trials and four meta-analyses. The majority of articles were non-randomized original papers and basic and clinical reviews. Conclusion Up to 20% of women with OAPS do not receive the currently recommended therapeutic regimen. Unfortunately, well-designed studies regarding the usefulness of new drugs in refractory OAPS are scarce. Hydroxychloroquine and low-dose prednisolone appear to be useful when added to standard therapy. Current data do not support the use of intravenous immunoglobulins in this field. The role played by double anti-aggregant therapy, fondaparinux, vitamin D, pentoxifylline and TNF-targeted therapies should be tested in well-designed studies.
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237
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Java A, Atkinson J, Salmon J. Defective complement inhibitory function predisposes to renal disease. Annu Rev Med 2012; 64:307-24. [PMID: 23121180 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-med-072211-110606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The role of the complement system in mediating human renal disease has long been recognized in immune-complex excess syndromes such as systemic lupus erythematosus and in dense deposit disease in which no immunoglobulin (Ig) is present. Over the past 15 years, mutations in complement regulatory genes have been demonstrated to predispose to thrombotic microangiopathies including atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome, C3 and C1q glomerulopathies, and preeclampsia. Excessive complement activation on an endothelial cell, due to either an autoantibody or a regulatory protein deficiency, sets up a procoagulant state in these diseases as well as in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Knowledge of the genes involved and the functional consequences of alterations in their structure has led to therapy that blocks complement activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuja Java
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
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238
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Oku K, Amengual O, Atsumi T. Pathophysiology of thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Eur J Clin Invest 2012; 42:1126-35. [PMID: 22784367 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2362.2012.02697.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In patients with the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), the presence of a group of pathogenic autoantibodies called antiphospholipid antibodies causes arteriovenous thrombosis and pregnancy complications. To date, the pathogenicity of the antiphospholipid antibodies has been the focus of analysis. Recently, the antibodies were reported to be capable of direct cell activation, and research on the underlying mechanism is ongoing. The antiphospholipid antibodies bind to the membranes of vascular endothelial cells, monocytes and platelets, provoking tissue factor expression and platelet aggregation. This activation functions as intracellular signalling, independent of the cell type, to activate p38MAPK and the transcription factor NFκB. Currently, there are multiple candidates for the membrane receptors of the antiphospholipid antibodies that are being tested for potential in specific therapy. Recently, APS was reported to have significant comorbidity with complement activation, and it was proposed that this results in placental damage and cell activation and, therefore, could be the primary factor for the onset of pregnancy complications and thrombosis. The detailed mechanism of complement activation remains unknown; however, an inflammation-inducing substance called anaphylatoxin, which appears during the activation process of the classical complement pathway, is thought to be a key molecule. Complement activation occurs in tandem, regardless of the pathology of APS or the type of antiphospholipid antibody, and it is thought that this completely new understanding of the mechanism will contribute greatly to comprehension of the pathology of APS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Oku
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
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239
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Salmon JE. PROMISSE: progress in understanding pregnancy complications in patients with SLE. Arthritis Res Ther 2012. [PMCID: PMC3467516 DOI: 10.1186/ar3973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Buurma A, Cohen D, Veraar K, Schonkeren D, Claas FH, Bruijn JA, Bloemenkamp KW, Baelde HJ. Preeclampsia is characterized by placental complement dysregulation. Hypertension 2012; 60:1332-7. [PMID: 23006730 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.112.194324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that preeclampsia is associated with complement dysregulation. The origin of complement dysregulation in preeclampsia is unknown, and further unraveling this mechanism could provide both diagnostic tools and therapeutic targets. Because the placenta is believed to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia, we investigated placentas from preeclamptic women (n=28) and controls (n=44) for the presence of complement activation products. Immunohistochemistry was performed for C1q, mannose-binding lectin, properdin, and C4d. Staining patterns were related to pregnancy outcome. Possible causes of complement activation were investigated, including the presence of immune deposits at the syncytiotrophoblast and changes in the placental mRNA expression of complement regulatory proteins. C4d was rarely present in placentas from healthy controls (3%), whereas it was observed in 50% of placentas obtained from preeclamptic women (P=0.001). In these placentas, C4d was observed in a focal (9/14) or diffuse (5/14) staining pattern at the syncytiotrophoblast. With respect to C1q, mannose-binding lectin, and properdin, no differences were observed between cases and controls. In preeclamptic women, diffuse placental C4d was associated with a significantly lower gestational age at delivery. Furthermore, the mRNA expression of the complement regulatory proteins CD55 and CD59 was significantly upregulated in preeclampsia. In conclusion, there is evidence for increased classical pathway activation and altered complement regulation in preeclampsia. The relation between C4d and lower gestational age at birth suggests that the extent of complement dysregulation is associated with the severity of preeclampsia. Inhibiting excessive complement activation may be a promising therapeutic approach in the management of preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aletta Buurma
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, L1 Q, PO Box 9600, P0-107, 2300 RC Leiden, the Netherlands.
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241
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Denny KJ, Woodruff TM, Taylor SM, Callaway LK. Complement in pregnancy: a delicate balance. Am J Reprod Immunol 2012; 69:3-11. [PMID: 22925193 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The complement system is a key component of innate host defence that, under normal conditions, is responsible for the opsonization and destruction of potential pathogens. However, inappropriate or excessive activation of complement can have a detrimental effect on the host and has been implicated in the pathophysiology of numerous disease states. Recently, there has been increasing evidence for a role of the complement system and, in particular, the potent pro-inflammatory anaphylatoxin complement component 5a (C5a) in both normal and complicated pregnancy. The following review describes the results of in vitro, animal, and human clinical studies investigating the role of the complement system in healthy pregnancy, recurrent miscarriage, preterm birth, and preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerina J Denny
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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242
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Lim R, Lappas M. Decreased expression of complement 3a receptor (C3aR) in human placentas from severe preeclamptic pregnancies. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2012; 165:194-8. [PMID: 22901903 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2012.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 08/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to determine the expression of the anaphylatoxin receptors complement C3a receptor (C3aR) and C5a receptor (C5aR) in the placentas of pregnancies complicated by severe early onset preeclampsia. STUDY DESIGN We recruited women with pregnancies complicated by severe early-onset preeclampsia (n=19, 11 of which were further complicated with IUGR) and women with preterm pregnancies not affected by preeclampsia (n=8). Gene and protein expression of C3aR and C5aR was analysed by quantitative RT-PCR and Western blotting, respectively. RESULTS C3aR was detected in the Hofbauer cells in the villous stroma of the placenta. C5aR staining was detected in the syncytiotrophoblast and endothelial cells. We found significantly decreased expression of C3aR mRNA and protein expression in placentas with preeclampsia compared to controls. However, C5aR expression was not significantly different between preeclamptic and control placentas at either the mRNA or protein level. CONCLUSIONS Decreased C3aR expression indicates a dysregulation of the complement system in the placentas of preeclamptic women. Further studies would elucidate the exact mechanisms that complement has in preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ratana Lim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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243
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Odiari EA, Mulla MJ, Sfakianaki AK, Paidas MJ, Stanwood NL, Gariepy A, Brosens JJ, Chamley LW, Abrahams VM. Pravastatin does not prevent antiphospholipid antibody-mediated changes in human first trimester trophoblast function. Hum Reprod 2012; 27:2933-40. [DOI: 10.1093/humrep/des288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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244
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Lood C, Eriksson S, Gullstrand B, Jönsen A, Sturfelt G, Truedsson L, Bengtsson AA. Increased C1q, C4 and C3 deposition on platelets in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus--a possible link to venous thrombosis? Lupus 2012; 21:1423-32. [PMID: 22878256 DOI: 10.1177/0961203312457210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have an increased risk of developing vascular diseases (VD) such as myocardial infarction, stroke and venous thrombosis, which can only partly be explained by traditional risk factors. The role of platelets in this process has not been extensively studied. Platelet activation supports complement binding to the platelet surface, and increased C4d has been seen on platelets in SLE patients as well as in non-rheumatic patients with stroke. In this study we investigated in vivo platelet deposition of the classical complement pathway components C1q, C4d and C3d in relation to VD in SLE patients. Furthermore, the ability of serum to support in vitro complement deposition on fixed heterologous platelets was analyzed. METHODS Blood from 69 SLE patients and age- and sex-matched healthy individuals was collected in sodium-citrate tubes and platelets isolated by centrifugation. Complement deposition on platelets was detected by flow cytometry. RESULTS We could demonstrate that SLE patients had increased C1q, C3d and C4d deposition on platelets as compared to healthy controls (p < 0.0001). SLE patients with a history of venous thrombosis had increased complement deposition on platelets as compared to SLE patients without this manifestation (p < 0.05). In vitro studies demonstrated that serum from patients with lupus anticoagulant, venous thrombosis or antiphospholipid antibody syndrome supported increased platelet C4d deposition in vitro as compared to SLE patients without these manifestations (p < 0.05). Our data support the hypothesis that platelet activation and the subsequent complement deposition on platelets are central in the development of venous thrombosis in SLE. CONCLUSIONS Altogether we suggest that complement deposition on platelets could reflect important pathogenetic events related to the development of venous thrombosis in SLE and might be used as a marker for venous thrombosis in SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lood
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Section of Rheumatology, Lund University and Skåne University Hospital, Sweden.
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245
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Kawaguchi R, Nunomura S, Umehara N, Nikaido T, Huppertz B, Tanaka T, Ra C. Multiple injections of anti-mouse β2glycoprotein 1 antibody induce FcRγ-dependent fetal growth restriction (FGR) in mice. Placenta 2012; 33:540-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2012.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Revised: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/31/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Abstract
The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is defined by the persistent presence of antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with a history of thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity, including fetal loss. APS is an autoimmune disease with a confusing name because the pathologic auto-antibodies are shown to be directed against the plasma protein β(2)-glycoprotein I and not against phospholipids. In fact, auto-antibodies that recognize phospholipids themselves are not associated with thrombosis but with infectious diseases. One of the intriguing questions is why autoantibodies against β(2)-glycoprotein I are so commonly found in both patients and the healthy. Several potential mechanisms have been suggested to explain the increased thrombotic risk in patients with these autoantibodies. In this overview, we will summarize our knowledge on the etiology of the autoantibodies, and we will discuss the evidence that identify autoantibodies against β(2)-glycoprotein I as the culprit of APS.
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247
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Check JH. The Use of Heparin for Preventing Miscarriage. Am J Reprod Immunol 2012; 67:326-33. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2012.01119.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome H. Check
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology & Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School at Camden, Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center; Camden; NJ; USA
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248
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Samarkos M, Mylona E, Kapsimali V. The role of complement in the antiphospholipid syndrome: a novel mechanism for pregnancy morbidity. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2012; 42:66-9. [PMID: 22405029 DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2011] [Revised: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Despite the experimental research data on antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), the pathogenesis of thrombosis and fetal loss remains unknown. The objective of this study was to analyze the major advances in the field of complement activation as a possible thrombosis mechanism in the APS. METHODS The authors conducted a systemic analysis of the English literature and summarized both animal and human data that indicate the inappropriate complement activation as a mechanism causing thrombosis in the APS. RESULTS The important role of complement activation in the pathogenesis of fetal loss was established using mice deficient in a complement regulatory protein. Further studies have shown that the infusion of human IgG antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) induced fetal loss in pregnant mice, an effect that was abrogated by the concurrent administration of a C3 convertase inhibitor. Further studies suggested that C5a and neutrophils were the key components responsible for fetal injury. Moreover, use of F(ab)'2 fragments of aPL suggested the complement activation occurred mainly via the classical pathway. Other studies using models of induced thrombosis suggested that antibodies against β2GPI required the presence of terminal complement components to induce thrombus formation, and mice deficient in C3 or C5 were found to be resistant to aPL-induced thrombosis. Based on the aforementioned findings, it has been suggested that heparin prevents fetal loss in patients with APS by inhibiting complement activation rather than by its anticoagulant effect. CONCLUSIONS The studies on complement are significant because they shift the focus of research in APS from thrombosis to inflammation. However, as human data are limited, more clinical research is necessary before the above findings translate in changes in the management of APS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Samarkos
- 5th Department of Medicine, Evagelismos Hospital, Athens, Greece
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Tersigni C, Marana R, Santamarìa A, Castellani R, Scambia G, Simone ND. In Vitro Evidences of Heparin's Effects on Embryo Implantation and Trophoblast Development. Reprod Sci 2012; 19:454-62. [DOI: 10.1177/1933719111430994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Tersigni
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Riccardo Marana
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Amparo Santamarìa
- Haematology Department, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Roberta Castellani
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Scambia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Di Simone
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
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250
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Significant changes in the levels of secreted cytokines in brains of experimental antiphospholipid syndrome mice. Autoimmune Dis 2012; 2012:404815. [PMID: 22454760 PMCID: PMC3290816 DOI: 10.1155/2012/404815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 11/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is characterized by thromboses and neuropsychiatric manifestations possibly linked to brain inflammation. In order to examine the levels of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in experimental APS (eAPS) mice brains, we measured the levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-10 in brain homogenates (cytosolic fractions) and in brain slices (secreted level) at 6, 15, and 24 weeks after immunization. We induced eAPS by immunization of Balb/c mice with β(2)-glycoprotein I (β(2)GPI), the major autoantigen in the disease and controls with adjuvant alone. We found increased levels of secreted TNF-α in eAPS mice for the entire experiment period. Cytosolic and secreted IL-10 and IFN-γ levels in eAPS mice were lower at 6 and 15 weeks and higher at 24 weeks after immunization. The results suggest that brain disease in APS is associated with significant and complex changes in proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.
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